研究生: |
王雅婷 |
---|---|
論文名稱: |
三歲幼兒對於錯誤相信與思考泡泡作業的理解及以思考泡泡活動介入之效果研究 Young Children’s Comprehension of False Beliefs Tasks and of Thought Bubbles Tasks, and the Intervention Effect of Thought Bubbles with Extensive Activities |
指導教授: | 簡淑真 |
學位類別: |
碩士 Master |
系所名稱: |
人類發展與家庭學系 Department of Human Development and Family Studies |
論文出版年: | 2006 |
畢業學年度: | 94 |
語文別: | 中文 |
論文頁數: | 201 |
中文關鍵詞: | 心智理論 、錯誤相信 、思考泡泡 、未預期移位作業 、未預期內容作業 、三歲幼兒 |
英文關鍵詞: | theory of mind, false belief, thought bubble, unexpected-transfer task, unexpected-content task, three-year-olds |
論文種類: | 學術論文 |
相關次數: | 點閱:398 下載:293 |
分享至: |
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報 |
「三歲幼兒對於錯誤相信與思考泡泡作業的理解情形
及以思考泡泡活動介入之效果研究」
摘 要
本研究目的在於探討台灣三歲幼兒對錯誤相信概念的理解之發展,並嘗試將教學活動與幼兒錯誤相信理解之發展相連結。本研究第一部份主要是為了解台灣三歲幼兒對錯誤相信與思考泡泡之理解情形的基礎探究,研究對象來自台灣某縣之兩所幼兒園中68位三歲幼兒,研究者試圖運用錯誤相信相關作業(未預期移位作業與未預期移位作業)來探究三歲幼兒錯誤相信之理解的發展,並運用思考泡泡相關作業,探究幼兒對思考泡泡圖畫表徵特質的理解與運用情形。本研究第二部分則試圖檢視思考泡泡活動介入對於三歲幼兒錯誤相信之理解的效果,研究中針對實驗組13位大三歲組和18位小三歲組幼兒進行一系列蘊含錯誤相信概念的思考泡泡活動,並檢驗思考泡泡活動介入對於增進三歲幼兒理解錯誤相信相關作業的效果。
研究結果發現,性別、園別、年齡(大、小三歲)語言能力等變項並未對幼兒在錯誤相信作業之表現造成影響,且大小三歲組幼兒對錯誤相信作業的理解表現並未因年齡不同而有所差異。進一步比較三歲幼兒在錯誤相信---未預期移位作業與未預期內容作業的表現差異,發現三歲幼兒在未預期內容作業的表現優於未預期移位作業的表現,此可能與幼兒在未預期內容作業中先經歷自己的錯誤相信以及情節內容較為直接明瞭有關。此外,針對錯誤相信作業之問題內容用字的部分進行比較,也發現使用「想」與「找」的字詞對於三歲幼兒判斷他人錯誤相信的正確性並無顯著影響。比較三歲幼兒在檢測自己錯誤相信與預期他人錯誤相信的表現,研究結果發現幼兒在「檢測自己錯誤相信」與「預測他人錯誤相信」的表現並無顯著差異,多是一致性未通過檢測自己及預測他人錯誤相信的問題。
本研究雖然未針對三歲幼兒日常生活的對話進行觀察,但從幼兒們在開放性問題的回答內容分析中,發現三歲幼兒使用認知狀態的詞彙,如「想」、「知道」、「猜」、「覺得」等描述主角心智狀態的比例明顯少於以欲求有關的詞彙,如:「想要」、「喜歡」等來描述主角的錯誤相信。
本研究「思考泡泡作業」顯示三歲幼兒在施測者簡單的引導之下,不僅能夠理解「思考泡泡」是「他人思考的顯示」,也懂得運用「思考泡泡」作為判斷外在情境中他人想法之依據,更能透過「思考泡泡」理解主角的錯誤相信與事實狀態間的差異,清楚辨別兩者的不同。隨著幼兒年齡增長,大小三歲幼兒對於思考泡泡的理解則呈現兩種發展特性:(1)隨著幼兒年齡增長,大三歲組幼兒比小三歲組幼兒更能理解「思考泡泡」具有表徵他人錯誤相信的特質;(2)隨著幼兒年齡增長,幼兒則會持續改變對「思考泡泡」與「他人心智狀態」等開放性問題的回應,年齡愈大的幼兒愈能清楚地陳述自我意見。
本研究第二部分針對三歲幼兒思考泡泡活動介入的重點包括:在每個思考泡泡活動中運用思考泡泡圖畫呈現的方式以討論及強調主角的想法、思考、相信(真實相信與錯誤相信)和行動間的關係,讓幼兒藉由思考泡泡的圖畫表徵瞭解主角的思考狀態;運用觸覺與嗅覺活動強調幼兒個人思考狀態的存在;運用故事敘述提昇幼兒對於故事主角思考狀態的注意;讓幼兒參與活動以增進對故事主角想法與行動關係的理解。結果顯示,三歲實驗組與控制組幼兒在錯誤相信作業的表現達到顯著差異,且大三歲實驗組幼兒在思考泡泡活動介入後,其在錯誤相信作業後測總分(2.08分)超過機會水準(2分),小三歲實驗組幼兒的表現也趨近機會水準(1.89分),顯示以「思考泡泡」圖畫表徵心智狀態的方式則有助幼兒理解原本不可見的心智運作內容,而能通過後測的錯誤相信作業。此外,實驗組幼兒在錯誤相信--未預期移位作業中的進展優於在錯誤相信-未預期內容作業的表現,意謂思考泡泡活動的介入不僅有助於三歲幼兒意識到他人思考、想法與相信等心智狀態的存在和行動間的關係,而思考泡泡活動中多以未預期移位作業的故事敘述為主,更增進了三歲實驗組幼兒在未預期移位作業的表現,因而突破在錯誤相信作業的瓶頸。
本研究結果發現台灣三歲幼兒對於錯誤相信作業的理解方面,呈現與國外幼兒共通的發展趨勢,即三歲幼兒對於錯誤相信的理解仍在持續發展。此外,運用思考泡泡活動的教學效果方面,發現三歲幼兒對錯誤相信的理解上有顯著進展,顯示思考泡泡活動介入有助於提昇幼兒對錯誤相信的理解可能性。
An abstract of
Young Children’s Comprehension of False Beliefs Tasks and of Thought Bubbles Tasks, and the Intervention Effect of Thought Bubbles with Extensive Activities
The purpose of this study was to explore preschoolers’ understanding of false belief and thought bubbles. Researcher also tries to use the intervention of activities of thought bubbles as a device for representing such mental states. The subjects of first part of this research was 3-year-olds and came from two kindergartens located in urban. We choose 64 3-year children as subjects including 31 elder 3-year-old children (36 month to 42 month) and 33 younger 3-year-old children (42 month to 48 month). Researcher describes and analyzes variables as gender, age, and language ability related to children's responses to false belief tasks.
The second part of this research was to use training activities of thought bubbles to help 3-year-olds develop or realize the way to reason more usefully about people's thoughts to pass standard false belief tasks. The second part of this research was to experimentally manipulate 3-year-olds exposure to training activities with thought bubbles to determine whether they would have some impact on children's performances on measures of false belief.
There was no gender, age, school, and language ability difference found in the measures of false belief. The results show that 3-year-olds typically perform poorly except in measure of false belief. The interpretation of these finds is the 3-year-olds suffer from a conceptual deficit of one kind or another. They are said to lack a concept of belief or a concept of mental representation.
In a series of 4 thought bubbles tasks, researcher explored preschooler's understanding of thought bubbles. Very few 3-year-olds knew what a thought bubbles depiction was without instruction. But it simply told that the thought bubbles “shows what someone in thinking”. The vast majority of 3-year-olds readily accept and understand thought bubbles as depicting thoughts. In total, 3-year-olds used thought bubbles depictions to ascertain the content of characters' thoughts in a variety of situations; appropriately distinguished such depicting from mere associated actions or objects, described thought bubbles in the language of mental states. Thought bubbles provide a device to help 3-year-olds to identify the characters' counter to fact thought correctly plus knowing the real content of box plus offering that the thoughts and the reality were different.
The second part of the research, the intervention process emphasizes 2 aspects: 1.Stress and describe the mental state of protagonist in form of thought bubble. 2. Use thought bubbles to provide a more general approach to reason about protagonists' behaviors and mental states.
The present data support the effect of false belief. The 3-year-olds in test group
performs better in false belief tasks than the 3-year-olds in comparison group. The mean scores of false belief measures did differ after intervention. In test group, elder 3-year-olds perform better than younger ones in false belief tasks. The 3-year-olds in test group perform better in unexpected-transfer tasks than in unexpected-content tasks. It implies that thought bubbles training activities may enhance children's awareness of protagonist's beliefs, thoughts, and action. Moreover, thought bubbles training activities enhance 3-year-olds perform better in unexpected-transfer tasks.
For further research, the result of this research provide the thought bubbles were easier to device and use in multiple teaching methods and activities to enhance young children to aware person's mental states.
參 考 資 料
一、 中文部分
王晴螢(2001)。三歲兒童欺騙能力之研究,。北市立師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
保心怡(2003)。幼兒對於心智理解相關作業的理解情形及運用故事活動介入的效果研究。國立台灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系博士論文。
林清儀(1993)。幼童之不同信念發展研究。文化大學兒童福利學系碩士論文。
林寶貴、林美秀(1993)。學前兒童語言障礙評量表之編定及相關因素研究。國立台灣師範大學特殊教育研究所。
林寶貴、林美秀(1993)。學前兒童語言障礙評量表之編定及相關因素研究。國立台灣師範大學特殊教育研究所。
許月琴(1999)。心智理論在自閉症兒童溝通上的應用,國小特殊教育,27期,57-59。
陳淑娟(2004)。社會故事教學對自閉症幼兒社會互動能力之成效研究。國立台東大學教育研究所碩士論文。
張欣戊(1998))。騙與受騙:學前兒童的欺騙能力。中華心理學刊,39 (2),1-12。
蔡淑玲(2001)。心智理論暨社交技巧教學對高功能自閉症兒童社會互動行為成效之研究。彰化師範大學特殊教育研究所碩士論文。
鄭津妃(2003)。電腦化教學系統對增進高功能自閉症兒童解讀錯誤信念之研究。台灣師範大學特殊教育研究所碩士論文。
二、 英文部分
Asher, S., & Coie, J.(1990). Peer rejection in childhood. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Astington, J. W. (1993). The child’s discovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Astington, J. W.,&Gopnik, A.(1991).Theoretical explanations of children’s understanding of the mind. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 9, 7-31.
Astington, J. W.,&Jenkins, J. M. (1999). A longitudinal study of the relation between language and theory-of–mind development. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1311-1320.
Badenes, L., Estevan, R.,&Bacete, F. (2000). Theory of mind and peer rejection at school. Social Development, 9(3), 271-283.
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind?” Cognition, 27 , 37-46.
Bartsch, K.,&Wellman, H. M. (1989). Young children’s attribution of action to beliefs and desires. Child Development, 60, 946-964.
Bartsch, K.,&Wellman,H. M. (1995). Children talk about the mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bjorklund,D.F.(2000).Children’s thinking: Developmental function and individual differences. (3vd.Ed.). U.K., U.S.:Wadsworth.
Bretherton, I.,&Beeghley, M.(1982).Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Developmental Psychology,18, 906-921.
Brown, J. R.,&Dunn, J. (1991).“You can cry, mum”: The social and developmental implications of talk about internal states. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 9, 237-56.
Butterworth, G.,&Jarrett, N. (1991).What minds have in commoon in space: Spatial mechanisms serving joint visual attention in infancy. British Journal of developmental Psychology,9,55-72.
Carpenter, M., Call, J.,& Tomasello, M.(2002). A new false belief test for 36-month-olds. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 20, 393-420.,
Chandler, M., Fritz, A. S., & Hala, S. (1989). Small scale deceit: Deception as a marker of 2-,3-, and 4-year-olds early theories of mind. Child Development,60, 1263-1277.
Charman, T.&Baron-Cohen, S. (1992). Understanding drawings and beliefs: A further test of the metarepresentation theory of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33,1105-1112.
Charman, T., Ruffman, T.,&Clements, W. (2002).Is there a gender differences in false belief development? Social Development, 11, 1-10.
Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A.,&Kupersmidt, J. B. (1990).Peer group behavior and social status. In S. R. Asher &J. D. Coie(Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood(pp.17-59). New York: Cambridge University Press.
DeLoache,J.S.(1987).Rapid change in the symbolic functioning of very children. Science,238,1556-1557.
DeLoache, J.S. (1989).Young children’s understanding of the correspondence between a scale model and a lager space. Cognitive Development, 4, 121-139.
DeLoache,J.S. (1991). Symbolic functioning in very young children:Understanding of pictures and models. Child Developmental, 62, 737-752.
DeLoache, J.S.,&Burns, N. M.(1994).Early understanding of the representational function of pictures. Cognition,52, 83-110.
DeLoache, J.S., Strauss, M., &Maynard, J.(1979).Picture perception in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 2, 77-89.
Dockett,S.(1997).Young children’s peer popularity and theories of mind. Poster presentation at the biennial meeting of the Society for Reaserch in Child Development, Washington, DC, April, 1997.
Flavell,J.H. (1988).The development of children’s knowledge about the mind: From cognitive connections to mental representations. In J. W. Astington, P. L. Harris, & D. R. Olson (Eds.), Develop theories of mind. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Flavell,J.H., Everett, B. A., Croft, K.,&Flavell, E. R. (1981).Young children’s knowledge about visual percerption: further evidence for the level1-level2 distinction. Developmental Psychology, 17,99-103.
Flavell, J.H., & Miller, P. H. (1998).Social cognition, Handbook of child Psychology, Kuhn, D. and Siegler, R., volume editor, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Foder, J. A. (1992). Atheory of the child’s theory of mind. Cognition, 44, 283-296.
Golinkoff, R. M. (1983). Infant social cognition: Self, people, and objects. In L. S. Liben(Ed.), Piaget and the foundations of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ:Eribaum.
Gopnik, A.,&Astington, J. W. (1988). Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction. Child Developmental,59,26-37.
Hala, S.,&Chandler, M. (1996). The role of strategic planning in accessing false-belief understanding. Child Developmental, 67, 2948-2966.
Hochberg, J., &Brooks,V. (1962). Pictorial recognition as an unlearned ability:A study of one child’s performance. American Journal of psychology, 75, 624-628.
Hogrefe, G. J., Wimmer, H/. &Perner, J.(1986).Ignorance versus false belief: a developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states. Child Developmental,57,567-582.
Holmes, H., Black, C.,&Miller, S. (1996). A cross-task comparison of false belief undersytanding in a Head Start population. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,63,263-85.
Hopfield, N. J. (1993). Is the theory of mind child’s play? Pretense and the perschooler’s theory of mind. Unpublished manuscript, Swarthmore College.
Jenkins, J. M.,&Astington, J. W. (1993). Cognitive, linguistic, and social gactors associated with theory of mind development in young children. In J. W. Astington.Individual differences in developing theories of mind. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleand.
Jenkins, J. M.,&Astington, J. W. (1996). Cognitive factors and family strcture associates with theory of mind development in young children, Developmental Psychology, 32, 70-78.
Jenkins, J. M., Turrell, S. L., Kogushi, S., Loois, S., &Ross, H. S.(2003).A longitudinal investigation of the dynamics of mental state talk in families. Child Developmental,74, 3, 905-920.
Lalonde, C.E., &Chandler, M. J. (1955).False belief understanding goes to school: On the social-emotional consequences of coming early or late to a first theory of mind. Cognition and Emotion, 9(2/3), 167-185.
Leaper, C.,Anderson, K. J.,&Sanders, P. (1998). Moderators of gender effect on parents’ talk to their children: a meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 34, 3-27.
Leekam, S.&Perner, J. (1991).Does the autistic child have a metarepresentational deficit? Cognition, 40, 203-218.
Legerstee, M. (1991). A review of the animate-inanimate distinction in infancy:Implications for models of social and cognitive knowing. Early Development and Parenting,1,59-67.
Lesile, A.. M.(1987).Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind. Psychology Review, 94,412-426.
Lesile, A.. M. (1994). Pretending and believing: Issues in the theory of TOMM. Cognition, 50, 211-238.
Lesile, A.. M.&Thaiss, L. (1992). Domain specificity in conceptual development: Evidence from autism. Cognition, 43, 225-251.
Lewis, C.&Osborne, A.(1990). Three-year-olds’ problems with false belif: Conceptual deficit or linguistic artifact? Child Development, 61,1514-1519.
Lillard, A .,&Cho, V. (1991). Young children’s understanding of representations .Poster at the American Psychological Association meeting, San Francisco.
McGregor, E.,Whiten, A.,&Blackburn, P. (1998). Teaching theory of mind by highlighting intention and illustrating thoughts: A comparison of their effectiveness with 3-year-olds and autistic individuals. British Journal of Developmental Pshchology, 16 , 281-300.
Meltzoff, A. N. (1990). Foundations for developing a concept of self: The role of imitation in relating self to other and the value of social mirror ing, social modeling, and self-practice in infancy. In D. Cicchetti & M, Beeghly(Eds.), The self in transition: Infancy to childhood. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Meltzoff, A. N.&Moore, M. K.(1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and development, 17,83-89.
Mitchell,P. (1994). Realism and early conception of mind: Phylogenetic amd ontogenetic issues. In C. Lewis & P. Mitchell(Eds.) Children’s early understanding of mind: Origins and development (pp.19-43).Hove, Sussex: Erlbaum.
Mitchell,P.,&Lacohee, H. (1991). Children’s early understanding of false belief. Cognition, 39, 107-127.
Moore, C., Bryant, D.,&Furrow, D.(1989). Mental terms and the development of certainty. Child Development, 60, 167-171.
Natio, M., Komatsu, S.,&Fuke, T. (1994). Normal and autisic children’s understanding of their own and others’ false belief: A study from Japan. British Journal of developmental Psychology,12,403-416.
Parsons, S.&Mitchell, P.(1999). “What children with autism understanding about thoughts and thought-bubbles.”Autism,3 ,17-38.
Perner, J.(1991).Understanding the representation mind. Cambridge,Mass:Bradford Books/MIT Press,131.
Perner, J., Frith, U., Leslie, A. M.& Leekam, S. R.(1989). Exploration of the autistic child’s theory of mind :knowledge, belief, and communication. Child Development, 60, 689-700.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R., Myers, D., Davis, S., &Odgers, N.(in press).Misrepresentation and referential confusion: Children’s difficulty with false beliefs and outdated photographs. British Journal of developmental Psychology.
Perner, J., Leekam, S. R.,& Wimmer, H. (1987).Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: The case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 5,125-137.
Perner, J., Ruffman, T., & Leekam, S. R. (1994). Theory of mind is contagious: You catch it from your sibs. Child Development, 65, 1288-1238.
Peterson, C. C.&Siegal, M. (1998).Changing foucus on the representational mind:Deaf, autism and normal children’s concepts of false photos, false drawing and false beliefs. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 16,301-320.
Riggs, K. J., Peterson, D. M., Robinson, E. J.,&Mitchell, P.(1998).Are errors in false belief tasks symptomatic of a broader difficulty with counterfactuality? Cognition, 13, 73-90.
Robinson, E. J.,&Mitchell, P. (1995).Making of children’s early understanding of the representational mind: Backwards explanation versus prediction. Child Development, 66, 1022-1039.
Robinson, E. J., Riggs, K, J.,&Samuel, J. (1996). Children’s memory for drawing based on a false belief. Developmental Psychology, 32, 6, 1056-1064.
Ruffman, T., Perner, J., Natio, M., Parkin, L.,&Celements, W. A. (1998). Older(but not younger)siblings facilitate false belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 34, 161-174.
Russell, J., Jarrold, C.,&Potel, D. (1994). What makes strategic deception difficult for children-the deception or the strategy? British Journal of developmental Psychology, 12, 301-314.
Russell, J., Mauthner, N., Sharpe, S.,&Tidswell, T. (1991).The windows tasks as a measure of strategic deception in preschoolerd and autistic subjects. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 9, 331-349.
Saltmarsh, R., Mitchell, P.,&Robinson, E. (1995). Realsm and children’s early grasp of mental representation: Belifs-based judgements in the state change task. Cognition, 57, 297-325.
Seier, W. L. (in press).The nature of young children’s understanding of pretense. Child Developmental.
Shantz, M., Wellman, H. M.,&Silber, S. (1983). The acquistion of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first reference to mental state. Cognition , 14, 301-321.
Siegal, M., & Beattie, K., (1991). Where to look for first for children’s understanding of false beliefs. Cognition, 38, 1-12.
Slaughter, V. (1998). Children’s understanding of pictorial and mental representation. Child Development,69,321-332.
Slaughter, V., Dennis, M.,& Pritchard, M. (2002). Theory of mind and peer acceptance in preschool children. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 20,545-564.
Sodian, B. (1991). The development of deception in young children. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 9, 173-188.
Sodian, B., Taylor,C., Harris, P. L.,&Perner, J. (1992). Earlydeception and the child’s theory of mind: false trails and Genuine markers. Child Developmental, 62, 468-483.
Spelke, E. S., Phillups, A.,&Woodward, A. L. (1995). Infant’s knowledge of object motion and human action. In D. Sperber, D. Premack, & A. J. Premack(Eds.), Causal cognition: A multidisciplinary debate. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
Sullivan, K.,&Winner, E. (1991).When 3-year-olds’ understand ignorance, false belief and representational change. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 91, 149-172.
Sullivan, K.,&Winner, E. (1993). Three-year-olds’ understanding of mental states: the influence of trickery. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 135-148.
Sweettenham, J. (1996). Can children with autism be thought to understand false belief using computers? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 157-65.
Sweettenham, J., Baron-Cohen, S., Gomez, J. C.,& Walsh, S. (1996)。”What’s inside a person’s head? Conceiving of the mind as a Camera helps children with autism develop an alternative theory of mind. Cognition Neuropsychiatry, 1, 73-88.
Wellman, H. M. (1990). The child’s theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Wellman, H. M., Baron-Cohen, S., Caswell, R., Gomez,J. C., Swettenham, J., Toye, E.,&Lagattuta, K. (2002). Thought-bubble help children with autism acquire an alternative to a theory of mind. Autism,6 ,4,343-363.
Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory –of-mind development: the truth about false belief. Child Developmental, 72,655-684.
Wellman, H. M., Hollander, M., & Schult, C. A. (1996). Young children’s understanding
Of thought bubbles and of thoughts. Child Developmental, 67,768-788.
Wellman, H. M.,&Woolley, J. D. (1990). From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: The early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 35, 245-275.
Wimmer, H.,&Hartl, M.(1991). Against the Cartesian view on mind: Young children’s difficulty with own false beliefs. British Journal of developmental Psychology,9, 125-138.
Wimmer, H.,&Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about Beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong celiefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13,103-128.
Woolfe, T., Want, S. C., & Siegal, M. (2002). Signposts to development: Theory of mind in deaf children. Child Development, 73, 3, 768-778.
Zaitchik, D.(1990). When representations conflict with false beliefs and “false” photographs. Cognition, 35, 41-68.