本研究旨在探討香港Y時代父母教養的代間傳遞。儘管不少西方研究證明，上一代的父母通過養育子女可以將不同的教養信念和行為傳遞給他們的孩子。而且，有許多西方研究人員進行了許多有關教養的代際傳遞的連續及不連續性的相關研究，但過去幾十年有關於香港父母的教養的代際傳遞的相關研究尚少。

本研究目的主要探討香港兩代父母的教養孩子的信念和行為之間的異同。本研究通過立意抽樣方式蒐集了十位在香港出生於Y世代的父母作為研究參與者。研究者與所有研究參與者以粵語進行半結構形式的深度訪談。本研究之結果：

一、父母的角色及責任：男性參與者與上一代相比，他們有比較多參與育兒子女，家庭分工也變得不明確。然而，女性參與者持主要照顧者及工作的雙重角色。參與者如同其父母仍然視養育子女為自己的責任，同時承擔與其父母不同的責任。

二、紀律和服從：大部分的參與者強調採用以「以兒童為中心」之教養觀，「聽話」的定義已與其父母的年代有所不同。他們採用多元化的管教策略，期望培育子女成為具有批判思考能力的人，為他們在現今及未來社會中茁壯成長做好準備。

三、情感表達：在對子女情感的表達上，參與者對直接性的表現與其父母的年代有了層面上的不同與轉換。在參與者中亦存在群體差異，大部分的參與者強烈強調他們以直接和外顯的方式表達愛，然而有三位父親參與者仍然如同其父母愛在心裡口難開。

四、教育：在現今的香港，教育仍然被視為是一個重要的因素。參與者在自己的能力範圍內為子女提供良好的環境和機會，就像其父母一樣。然而，參與者與其父母相比，不太可能且不願意利用心理壓力來推動子女在學業上取得優異的成績。

五、社會情緒發展：參與者與其父母一樣強調培養孩子成為「好人」，例如：具備基本禮儀，明辨的能力，以及維持良好的人際關係。

The present study investigated the intergenerational transmission of parenting amongst Hong Kong Generation Y parents. Empirical evidence in the West has found that parents in one generation can transmit their parenting practices to their children. Numerous researchers in the West conducted intergenerational parenting research to investigate the continuities and discontinuities of parenting. However, few studies have been done on the intergenerational shifts in the Hong Kong parenting context over the past few decades.

The purpose of the present study was to identify the intergenerational similarities and changes in parenting beliefs and behaviours between the two generations of Hong Kong parents. Ten Hong Kong parents who are born in Generation Y were recruited in the present study through purposive sampling. All participants participated in a semi-structured interview and the medium of the interview in Cantonese. The primary results were as follows:

(1) Parental Role and Responsibilities: Male participants were more involved in childrearing and less clear-cut in the division of labour than in the older generations. Yet, participants or their spouses who were female undertook dual roles of being the primary caregivers and breadwinners. Participants continued to perceive the upbringing of their children as their parental responsibility while assuming different parental responsibilities than their own parents.

(2) Discipline and Obedience: Nearly all participants placed a strong emphasis on adopting a “child-centred” approach and reconceptualized the concept of “obedience” compared to their parents. They employed multi-methods in disciplinary strategies to nurture their children as critical thinkers, preparing them to thrive in both present and future society.

(3) Emotional Expression: Participants attempt to express love through more direct means than their parents, but group variations existed. The majority of participants strongly emphasise demonstrating direct and outward expressions of love and affection to their children, whereas three participants who were fathers were reluctant to express their love verbally as their parents.

(4) Education: Education was still regarded as an important factor in contemporary Hong Kong. Participants tried their best in abilities to provide a good environment and rich opportunities for their children as their parents. Yet, participants were less likely and less willing to use psychological pressure to push their children to achieve academic excellence.

(5) Socioemotional Development: Participants continued to strongly emphasise cultivating their children to be “kind people” as their parents, for instance, possessing basic etiquette and manners, the ability to distinguish rights and wrongs, and the maintenance of interpersonal harmony.

Bandura, A. (1969). Social-learning theory of identificatory processes. In Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 213–262). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally & Company.
Bandura, Albert. (1977). Social learning theory of aggression. In A. F. Richard & S. K. Samuel (Eds.), The Control of Aggression (Vol. 1, pp. 141–156). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315080390-7
Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67(6), 3296–3319. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131780
Baumrind, D. (1967). Childcare practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behaviour. Genetic Psychology Monographs. https://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.45-0345
Belsky, J., Jaffee, S. R., Sligo, J., Woodward, L., & Silva, P. A. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: A prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3-year-olds. Child Development, 76(2), 384–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00852.x
Berlin, L. J., Appleyard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Development, 82(1), 162–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01547.x
Borelli, J. L., Margolin, G., & Rasmussen, H. F. (2015). Parental overcontrol as a mechanism explaining the longitudinal association between parent and child anxiety. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1559–1574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9960-1
Bornstein, M. H., & Cheah, C. S. L. (2006). The place of “Culture and Parenting” in the ecological contextual perspective on developmental science. In N. J. Cabrera & R. H. Bradley (Eds.), Parenting Beliefs, Behaviors, and Parent-Child Relations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (pp. 15–133). Routledge.
Bornstein, M. H., & Tamis-Lemonda, C. S. (2001). Mother-infant interaction. In B. Hopkins (Ed.), Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development (pp. 269–295). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1111/b.9780631212355.2004.00002.x
Bradley-Geist, J. C., & Olson-Buchanan, J. B. (2014). Helicopter parents: An examination of the correlates of over-parenting of college students. Education and Training, 56(4), 314–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-10-2012-0096
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child-rearing. American Psychologist, 34(10), 844–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.844
Cabecinha-Alati, S., Montreuil, T. C., & Langevin, R. (2022). The role of maternal child maltreatment history and unsupportive emotion socialization in the intergenerational transmission of emotion regulation difficulties. Child Abuse & Neglect, 129, 105661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105661
Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Patterson, G. R., & Owen, L. D. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022547312322
Census and Statistics Department. (2021). Year-end population for 2020. Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/press_release_detail.html?id=4825
Chan, D., & Drover, G. (2002). Teaching and learning for overseas students: The Hong Kong connection. In N. Haydon, & J. Ainley (Eds.), Overseas students in higher education: Issues in teaching and learning (pp. 58–73). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203040065-8
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65(4), 1111–1119. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131308
Chao, R. K. (2000). The parenting of immigrant Chinese and European American mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(2), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00037-4
Chao, R. K. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans. Child Development, 72(6), 1832–1843. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00381
Chan, S. M., Bowes, J., & Wyver, S. (2009). Chinese parenting in Hong Kong: Links among goals, beliefs and styles. Early Child Development and Care, 179(7), 849-862. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430701536525
Cheah, C. S. L., Li, J., Zhou, N., Yamamoto, Y., & Leung, C. Y. Y. (2015). Understanding Chinese immigrant and European American Mothers’ expressions of warmth. Developmental Psychology, 51(12), 1802–1811. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039855
Cheah, C. S. L., & Rubin, K. (2004). European American and Mainland Chinese mothers’ responses to aggression and social withdrawal in preschoolers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(1), 83-94. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000299
Cheah, C. S. L., & Rubin, K. H. (2003). European American and mainland Chinese mothers' socialization beliefs regarding preschoolers' social skills. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327922PAR0301_01
Chen, F. M., & Luster, T. (2002). Factors related to parenting practices in Taiwan. Early Child Development and Care, 172(5), 413–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430214549
Chen, M., Chen, Q., Lo, C. K. M., Kelley, S. J., Chan, K. L., & Ip, P. (2022). Attitudes toward Grandparental Involvement in Hong Kong: A Trend Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(16), 9858. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19169858
Chen, Z.-Y., & Kaplan, H. B. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00017.x
Cheng, S. T., Chan, W., & Chan, A. C. M. (2008). Older people’s realisation of generativity in a changing society: The case of Hong Kong. Ageing and Society, 28(5), 609–627. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X07006903
Chua, A. (2011). Battle hymn of the tiger mother. Penguin Press.
Chuang, S. S., & Su, Y. (2009). Do we see eye to eye? Chinese others’ and fathers’ parenting beliefs and values for toddlers in Canada and China. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(3), 331–341. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016015
Collins, W. A., Maccoby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.218
Conger, R. D., Neppl, T., Kim, K. J., & Scaramella, L. (2003). Angry and aggressive behaviour across three generations: A prospective, longitudinal study of parents and children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 143–160. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022570107457
Coplan, R. J., Hastings, P. D., Lagace-Seguin, D. G., & Moulton, C. E. (2002). Authoritative and authoritarian mothers’ parenting goals, attributions, and emotions across different childrearing contexts. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 168(2), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327922PAR0201_1
Creswell, J. W. (2015). Revisiting Mixed Methods and Advancing Scientific Practices (S. N. Hesse-Biber & R. B. Johnson, Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry, Oxford Library of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199933624.013.39
Crittenden, P. M. (1984). Sibling interaction: Evidence of a generational effect in maltreating infants. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8(4), 433–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(84)90024-3
Darling, N., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting style as context: An integrative model. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 487–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.113.3.487
Dimock, M. (2019). Defining generations: Where Millennials end and Generation Z begins. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/
Dworkin, S. L. (2012). Sample size policy for qualitative studies using in-depth interviews. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(6), 1319–1320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0016-6
Fairbanks, L. A. (1989). Early experience and cross-generational continuity of mother-infant contact in vervet monkeys. The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 22(7), 669–681. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420220703
Forrest, R., & Xian, S. (2018). Accommodating discontent: Youth, conflict and the housing question in Hong Kong. Housing Studies, 33(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2017.1342775
Goodnow, J. J. (1988). Parents’ ideas, actions, and feelings: Models and methods from developmental and social psychology. Child Development, 59(2), 286. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130312
Goodnow, J. J. (2006). Cultural perspectives and parents’ views of parenting and development: Research directions. In P. R. Shaver & J. A. Clum (Eds.), Parenting Beliefs, Behaviors, and Parent-Child Relations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective (pp. 35–57). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/ 10.4324/9780203942901
Groves, J. M., & Lui, L. (2012). The ‘Gift ‘of help: domestic helpers and the maintenance of hierarchy in the household division of labour. Sociology, 46(1), 57-73. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0038038511416166
Grusec, J. E. (2002). Parental socialization and children’s acquisition of values. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of Parenting (Vol. 5, pp. 143–167). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Hagan, L. K. (2016). History of child development (pp. 155–167). American Psychological Association. Division on the Teaching of Psychology.
Hagestad, G. O., & Call, V. R. A. (2007). Pathways to childlessness: A life course perspective. Journal of Family Issues, 28(10), 1338–1361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07303836
Harper, M., & Cole, P. (2012). Member checking: Can benefits be gained similar to group therapy? The Qualitative Report, 17(2), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2012.2139
He, G., & Wu, X. (2019). Foreign domestic helpers hiring and women’s labor supply in Hong Kong. Chinese Sociological Review, 51(4), 397-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2019.1630814
He, H., Usami, S., Rikimaru, Y., & Jiang, L. (2021). Cultural roots of parenting: Mothers’ parental social cognitions and practices from Western US and Shanghai/China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.565040
Hennink, M., Hutter, I., & Bailey, A. (2011). Qualitative research methods. SAGE Publications.
Ho, D. Y. F., & Kang, T. K. (1984). Intergenerational comparisons of child-rearing attitudes and practices in Hong Kong. Developmental Psychology, 20(6), 1004–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.20.6.1004
Ho, S. W. B. (2014). Intergeneration transmission of parenting among Hong Kong parents. Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Hong, Y. R., & Park, J. S. (2012). Impact of attachment, temperament and parenting on human development. Korean journal of pediatrics, 55(12), 449. https://doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2012.55.12.449
Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies. (2020). Survey findings on view on emigration from Hong Kong. Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Hong Kong Legislative Council Secretariat. (2019). Opportunities and challenges facing maternal workforce in Hong Kong (No. 2018–2019). Retrieved March 10, 2023, from https://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/1819rb02-opportunities-and-challenges-facing-maternal-workforce-in-hong-kong-20190716-e.pdf
Hong Kong Legislative Council Secretariat. (2018). Working hours in Hong Kong: Statistical Highlights (ISSH06/19-20). Retrieved April 01, 2023, from https://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/1920issh06-working-hours-in-hong-kong-20191108-e.pdf
Hong Kong Women’s Commission (2021). Hong Kong Women in Figures 2021. Retrieved April 01, 2023, from https://www.women.gov.hk/
Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2007). Millennials Go to College. New York: Vintage Books.
Hu, Y., & Scott, J. (2016). Family and gender values in China: Generational, geographic, and gender differences. Journal of Family Issues, 37(9), 1267–1293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14528710
Hui, E. K. P., Suna, R. C. F., Chowa, S. S. Y., & Chu, M. H. T. (2011). Explaining Chinese students’ academic motivation: Filial piety and self-determination. Educational Psychology, 31(3), 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2011.559309
Jose, P. E., Huntsinger, C. S., Huntsinger, P. R., & Liaw, F.-R. (2000). Parental values and practices relevant to young children’s social development in Taiwan and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(6), 677–702. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031006002
Karsten, L. (2015). Middle-class childhood and parenting culture in high-rise Hong Kong: On scheduled lives, the school trap and a new urban idyll. Children's geographies, 13(5), 556-570. http://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2014.915288
Kim, S. Y., Wang, Y., Orozco-Lapray, D., Shen, Y., & Murtuza, M. (2013). Does “tiger parenting” exist? Parenting profiles of Chinese Americans and adolescent developmental outcomes. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030612
Koh, A. (2014). The “magic” of tutorial centres in Hong Kong: An analysis of media marketing and pedagogy in a tutorial centre. International Review of Education, 60(6), 803–819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-014-9460-y
Koo, R. D., Kam, M. C. K., & Choi, B. C. (2003). Education and schooling in Hong Kong under One Country, Two Systems. Childhood Education, 79(3), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2003.10522213
Kvale, S. (2003). The psychoanalytic interview as inspiration for qualitative research. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10595-014
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. SAGE Publications.
Kwok, H. K. (2012). The Generation Y’s working encounter: A comparative study of Hong Kong and other Chinese cities. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 33(2), 231-249. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-012-9302-7
Kwok, S. Y. C. L., Ling, C. C. Y., Leung, C. L. K., & Li, J. C. M. (2013). Fathering self-efficacy, marital satisfaction and father involvement in Hong Kong. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(8), 1051–1060. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9666-1
Lai, C. A., Zhang, Z.-X., & Wang, W.-Z. (2000). Maternal child-rearing practices in Hong Kong and Beijing Chinese families: A comparative study. International Journal of Psychology, 35(1), 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/002075900399529
Lam, C.-M., Kwong, W.-M., & To, S.-M. (2019). Has parenting changed over past decade? A qualitative study of generational shifts in parenting. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.18178/ijssh.2019.V9.988
Lazarides, R., Viljaranta, J., Aunola, K., Pesu, L., & Nurmi, J. E. (2016). The role of parental expectations and students’ motivational profiles for educational aspirations. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.08.024
Lee, C. C., li, D., Arai, S., & Puntillo, K. (2009). Ensuring cross-cultural equivalence in translation of research consents and clinical documents: A systematic process for translating English to Chinese. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 20(1), 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659608325852
Lee, J. (2011). Toward a parallel corpus of spoken Cantonese and written Chinese. In Proceedings of 5th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, 1462–1466.

Lee, V. W. P., Ling, H. W. H., Cheung, J. C. S., Tung, S. Y. C., Leung, C. M. Y., & Wong, Y. C. (2021). Technology and family dynamics: The relationships among children’s use of mobile devices, family atmosphere and parenting approaches. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-021-00745-0
Lei, L. (2013). Sons, daughters, and intergenerational support in China. Chinese Sociological Review, 45(3), 26–52. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSA2162-0555450302
Leung, L. C. (2018). Gender matters: rethinking the childcare model in Hong Kong. Children & Society, 32(5), 393-404. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12260
Leung, J. T., & Shek, D. T. (2018). Families in transition in Hong Kong: Implications to family research and practice. International Public Health Journal, 10(2), 143–155.
Li, J. (2005). Mind or Virtue: Western and Chinese Beliefs About Learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(4), 190–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00362.x
Li, R. Y. M. (2015). Generation X and Y’s demand for homeownership in Hong Kong. Pacific Rim Property Research Journal, 21(1), 15-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/14445921.2015.1026195
Li, J., & Lavely, W. (2003). Village context, women’s status, and son preference among rural Chinese women. Rural Sociology, 68(1), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2003.tb00130.x
Lieber, E., Fung, H., & Leung, P. W. L. (2006). Chinese child-rearing beliefs: Key dimensions and contributions to the development of culture-appropriate assessment. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9(2), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2006.00191.x
Louw, S., Zilli, P. J., & Weger, H. (2011). Active listening in qualitative research interviews. In Proceedings of the International Conference: Research in Applied Linguistics, 71–82.
Luo, R., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Song, L. (2013). Chinese parents’ goals and practices in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(4), 843–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.08.001
Ma, Y., Siu, A., & Tse, W. S. (2018). The role of high parental expectations in adolescents’ academic performance and depression in Hong Kong. Journal of Family Issues, 39(9), 2505–2522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X18755194
Maccoby, E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–101). Wiley.
Macon, T. A., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Cabrera, N. J., & McFadden, K. E. (2017). Predictors of father investment of time and finances: The specificity of resources, relationships, and parenting beliefs. Journal of Family Issues, 38(18), 2642–2662. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X17710282
Mann, S. K. F., & Cheng, V. (2013). Responding to moral dilemmas: The roles of empathy and collectivist values among the Chinese. Psychological Reports, 113(1), 1119–1129. https://doi.org/10.2466/17.21.PR0.113x14z6
Maykut, P., & Morehouse, R. (2002). Beginning qualitative research: A philosophical and practical guide. Routledge.
Merriam, S. B. (2002). Introduction to qualitative research. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis, 1(1), 1–17.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Mok, J. K.-H., & Currie, J. (2002). Reflections on the impact of globalization on educational restructuring in Hong Kong. In K. Mok & A. Welch (Eds.), Globalization and Education: The Quest for Quality Education in Hong Kong (pp. 259–277). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403990488_5
Neppl, T. K., Conger, R. D., Scaramella, L. v., & Ontai, L. L. (2009). Intergenerational Continuity in Parenting Behavior: Mediating Pathways and Child Effects. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1241–1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014850
Neuenschwander, M. P., Vida, M., Garrett, J. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). Parents’ expectations and students’ achievement in two Western nations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(6), 594–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407080589
Ng, F. F. Y., Pomerantz, E. M., & Deng, C. (2014). Why are Chinese mothers more controlling than American mothers? “My child is my report card.” Child Development, 85(1), 355–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12102
Ngai, F. W., & Lam, W. (2020). The experience of first‐time Hong Kong Chinese fatherhood: A qualitative exploratory study. Nursing & Health Sciences, 22(3), 723-731. http://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12719
Ngai, S. S. yum, Xie, L., Ng, Y. hang, & Ngai, H. lam. (2018). The effects of parenting behaviour on prosocial behaviour of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Children and Youth Services Review, 87, 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.02.030
Niu, H., Liu, L., & Wang, M. (2018). Intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline: The moderating role of parenting stress and parent gender. Child Abuse and Neglect, 79, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.017
Olsen, S. F., Yang, C., Hart, C. H., Robinson, C. C., Wu, P., Nelson, D. A., Nelson, L. J., Jin, S., & Wo, J. (2004). Maternal psychological control and preschool children’s behavioural outcomes in China, Russia, and the United States. In B. K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents. (pp. 235–262). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10422-008
Ong, S. (2010). Predictors of psychological control: Marital conflict and intergenerational continuity of parenting. International Journal of Learning, 17(8), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.18848/1447-9494/CGP/v17i08/47190
Padawidjaja, I. A., & Chao, R. K. (2010). Parental beliefs and their relation to the parental practices of immigrant Chinese Americans and European Americans. In Asian American Parenting and Parent-Adolescent Relationships (pp. 37–60). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5728-3_3
Park, M., & Chesla, C. (2007). Revisiting Confucianism as a conceptual framework for Asian family study. Journal of Family Nursing, 13(3), 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074840707304400
Patton, M. Q. (1999). Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Health Services Research, 34(5 Pt 2), 1189-1208.
Pearson, E., & Rao, N. (2003). Socialization goals, parenting practices, and peer competence in Chinese and English preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 173(1), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443022000022486
Pennington, M. C., & Yue, F. (1994). English and Chinese in Hong Kong: Pre-1997 language attitudes. World Englishes, 13(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1994.tb00279.x
Phillipson, S., Raquel, M. R., & Gube, J. C. (2011). English and its role in Hong Kong cultural identity. In Linguistic Diversity and Cultural Identity (pp. 11-22). Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Pomerantz, E. M., & Wang, Q. (2009). The role of parental control in children’s development in Western and East Asian countries. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(5), 285–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01653.x
Poon, A. Y. (2010). Language use, and language policy and planning in Hong Kong. Current issues in language planning, 11(1), 1-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664201003682327
Rousseau, S., & Scharf, M. (2015). “I will guide you” The indirect link between overparenting and young adults’ adjustment. Psychiatry Research, 228(3), 826–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.016
Rubin, H., & Rubin, I. (2012). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. In Qualitative Interviewing (2nd ed.): The Art of Hearing Data. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226651
Ryan, G. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2003). Techniques to identify themes. Field Methods, 15(1), 85–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X02239569
Saunders, B., Kitzinger, J., & Kitzinger, C. (2015). Anonymising interview data: Challenges and compromise in practice. Qualitative Research, 15(5), 616–632. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794114550439
Scaramella, L. v., & Conger, R. D. (2003). Intergenerational continuity of hostile parenting and its consequences: The moderating influence of children’s negative emotional reactivity. Social Development, 12(3), 420–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.t01-1-00241
Schofield, T. J., & Weaver, J. M. (2016). Democratic parenting beliefs and observed parental sensitivity: Reciprocal influences between coparents. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000166
Seay, D. M., Jahromi, L. B., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. A. (2016). Intergenerational transmission of maladaptive parenting strategies in families of adolescent mothers: Effects from grandmothers to Young Children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(6), 1097–1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0091-y
Segrin, C., Woszidlo, A., Givertz, M., Bauer, A., & Taylor Murphy, M. (2012). The association between overparenting, parent-child communication, and entitlement and adaptive traits in adult children. Family Relations, 61(2), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00689.x
Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences (3rd ed.). Teacher College Press.
Serbin, L., & Karp, J. (2003). Intergenerational studies of parenting and the transfer of risk from parent to child. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 138–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01249
Settles, B. H., Sheng, X., Zang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2013). The one-child policy and its impact on Chinese families. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0266-4_38
Shek, D. T. L. (2001). Paternal and maternal influences on family functioning among Hong Kong Chinese families. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162, 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320109597881
Shek, D. T. L. (2007). A longitudinal study of perceived differences in parental control and parent-child relational qualities in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22(2), 156–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558406297509
Shek, D. T. L. (2008). Perceived parental control and parent-child relational qualities in early adolescents in Hong Kong: Parent gender, child gender and grade differences. Sex Roles, 58(9–10), 666–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9371-5
Shek, D. T. L., Man Kwong, W., Zhu, X., Yang, Z., & Professor, F. (2019a). Gendered expectation towards sons and daughters in Chinese parents in Hong Kong. International Journal Child Adolescent Health, 12(4), 357–367.
Shek, D. T. L., Man Lam, C., Zhu, X., & Professor, F. (2019b). Parental expectations amongst Chinese parents in Hong Kong: Profiles and demographic correlates. International Journal Child Adolescent Health, 12(4), 345–356.
Shek, D. T. L., & Sun, R. C. F. (2014). Parenting in Hong Kong: Traditional Chinese cultural roots and contemporary phenomena (Vol. 7). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7503-9_3
Shek, D. T. L., To, S.-M., & Dou, D. (2019c). Parental beliefs about parental roles and responsibilities in Chinese parents: Pioneer findings. International Journal Child Adolescent Health, 12(4), 379–389.
Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Conger, R. D., & Chyi-In, W. (1991). Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting. Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.159
Smith, C. A., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Continuities in antisocial behavior and parenting across three generations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 230–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00216.x
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Health, B., Carlos, S., Tribe, A., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent-child conflict tactics scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(4), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9
Suen, Y. N., Cerin, E., Barnett, A., Huang, W. Y., & Mellecker, R. R. (2019). Associations of socio-demographic, family, and neighborhood factors with physical activity-related parenting practices among Hong Kong Preschoolers’ parents. Maternal and child health journal, 23, 678-691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-018-2689-5

Sun, L., Fu, Z., Li, P., & Gong, X. (2021). Chinese parenting beliefs in the intergenerational transmission of parental psychological control amongst Chinese families with adolescents. Current Psychology, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02125-4
Swanzen, R. (2018). Facing the generation chasm: The parenting and teaching of generation Y and Z. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies, 9(2), 125. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijcyfs92201818216
Tam, V. C. W. (2001). A family ecological analysis of child care use in Hong Kong. Children and Society, 15(3), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/chi.639
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2004). Conceptualizing fathers’ roles: Playmates and more. Human Development, 47(4), 220–227. https://doi.org/10.1159/000078724
Tanaka, M., Kitamura, T., Chen, Z., Murakami, M., & Goto, Y. (2009). Do parents rear their children as they were reared themselves? Intergenerational transmission of parental styles (warmth and control) and possible mediation by personality traits. The Open Family Studies Journal, 2(1), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874922400902010082
Tang, C. S. K. (2006). Corporal punishment and physical maltreatment against children: A community study on Chinese parents in Hong Kong. Child abuse & neglect, 30(8), 893-907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.02.012
Thornberry, T. P., Freeman-Gallant, A., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., & Smith, C. A. (2003). Linked lives: The intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022574208366
To, S.-M., Lam, C.-M., & So, Y.-Y. (2019). Reflections of parents and parent work practitioners on the changing experiences and circumstances of parenting in Hong Kong. International Journal of Social Science & Humanity, 9(3), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijssh.2019.V9.991
Tobin, J. J., Wu, D. Y., & Davidson, D. H. (1989). Preschool in three cultures. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226805054.001.0001
Tse, S. K. (2014). To what extent does Hong Kong primary school students’ Chinese reading comprehension benefit from after-school private tuition? Asia Pacific Education Review, 15, 283-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-013-9307-4
van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1992). Review intergenerational transmission of parenting: A review of studies in nonclinical populations. Developmental Review, 12(1), 76–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90004-L
Wang, S., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2003). Do child-rearing values in Taiwan and the United States reflect cultural values of collectivism and individualism? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(6), 629–642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022103255498
Watkins, D. (2006). The role of competition in today’s Hong Kong the views of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents in comparative perspective. Journal of Social Sciences, 2(3), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.3844/jssp.2006.85.88
Wei, Q. (2023). The Positive and Negative Effects of Chinese Filial Piety. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 563-568. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v8i.4310
Wong, D. F. K., Zhuang, X. Y., & Ng, T. K. (2019). Is parental control beneficial or harmful to the development of young children in Hong Kong? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(3), 831–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1301-3
Wong, L., & Chan, C. W. (2019). Promotion of adolescent mental health in Hong Kong—the role of a comprehensive child health policy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(6), S14-S18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.033
Wong, O. M. H. (2003). Postponement or abandonment of marriage? Evidence from Hong Kong. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 34(4), 531–560. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.34.4.531
Woody, W. D., Miller, R. L., & Wozniak, W. J. (2016). Psychological specialities in historical context: Enriching the classroom experience for teachers and students. In Psychological Specialities.
Wu, P., Robinson, C. C., Yang, C., Hart, C. H., Olsen, S. F., Porter, C. L., Jin, S., Wo, J., & Wu, X. (2002). Similarities and differences in mothers’ parenting of preschoolers in China and the United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(6), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250143000436
Yang, W. (2007). Gifted or not, parental perceptions are the same: A Study of Chinese American parental perceptions of their children’s academic achievement and home environment. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 1(3), 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595690701394824
Yang, W., & Li, H. (2018). Cultural ideology matters in early childhood curriculum innovations: A comparative case study of Chinese kindergartens between Hong Kong and Shenzhen. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4), 560-585.
Yao, X. Z. (2000). An introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press (CUP). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511800887.006
Yeh, K. H. (2003). The beneficial and harmful effect of filial piety: An integrative analysis. In Progress in Asian Social Psychology: Conceptual and Empirical Contributions (Vol. 42, pp. 67–82).
Yim, H. Y. B., Lee, L. W. M., & Ebbeck, M. (2011). Confucianism and early childhood education: A study of young children’s responses to traditional Chinese festival stories. Early Child Development and Care, 181(3), 287–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430903357837
Yuen, A. H., Park, J. H., Chen, L., & Cheng, M. (2017). Digital equity in cultural context: exploring the influence of Confucian heritage culture on Hong Kong families. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65, 481-501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-017-9515-4
Yung, K. W. H. (2020). Comparing the effectiveness of cram school tutors and schoolteachers: A critical analysis of students’ perceptions. International Journal of Educational Development, 72, 102141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2019.102141
Zhang, W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2006). Authority, autonomy, and family relationships among adolescents in urban and rural China. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(4), 527–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00506.x