因應108新課綱將思考能力納入國中階段英語學習領域，本研究旨在探討如何將批判思考技巧教學融入國中階段正規英語課堂。研究中除了探究學生在學習過程中會遇到的困難及如何調整教案以解決問題，也調查學生對批判思考技巧教學的認知與態度。
本研究採行動研究設計，研究對象為台北市某公立國中九年級的二十三位學生。本研究將六項核心思考能力—分類、排序、比較異同、分辨客觀事實與主觀意見、判斷因果關係、綜合相關資訊與推論—融入於五課英語課本閱讀或對話教學中。教學中運用了小組討論、圖像組織及閱讀相關問題等方法。研究者透過學習單、訪談、教師日誌及問卷調查等方式來蒐集資料。
研究發現批判思考教學過程中必須給予學生清楚的說明、足夠的示例與適時的引導。小組討論、圖像組織及閱讀相關問題的運用皆為有效的教學方法，而差異化學習單亦能提供低成就學生在語言上的協助。此外，每個思考技巧有特定的教學技巧，在教分類時，應避免出現學生不熟悉的項目，且類別的定義和類別間的分界線須清楚；教比較異同時，圖表中可內含提示字或利用討論問題來引導學生整理二者間之相同與相異處；關鍵字的使用則對分辨客觀事實與主觀意見及判斷因果關係有很大幫助。研究也發現多數學生認為批判思考為一項可習得的能力，可融入教學中，但卻不一定要在英語課堂中學習。六項思考技巧中，多數學生認為分類和排序較簡單，而分辨客觀事實與主觀意見及判斷因果關係則相對較難。大致上學生贊同批判思考教學帶來的益處，特別是對閱讀理解的幫助。然而，少部分學生擔憂此教學造成額外的學習負擔。最後，本文亦提出其他英語教學現場的建議與未來研究方向。

As the 2019 Twelve-year Basic Education Curriculum Guidelines add critical thinking (CT) skills into the guidelines for junior high school English curriculum, the study aimed to investigate how to incorporate CT instruction into regular junior high school English class, particularly what difficulties students encountered and what adjustments could be made during the teaching process, and students’ perceptions and attitudes toward the CT intervention.
The study adopted an action research design where all the CT skills were taught in multiple cycles. The participants were twenty-three ninth-grade students from a school in Taipei City. Six target CT skills, namely (1) categorizing, (2) sequencing, (3) comparing and contrasting, (4) distinguishing facts from opinions, (5) identifying the causal relationship, and (6) synthesizing relevant information and making inferences, were integrated and taught with the readings or dialogues across five lessons in the textbook. The teaching methods employed in the CT intervention included group discussion, graphic organizers, and reading-related questions. Data were collected through worksheets, interviews, teaching logs, and perception questionnaire.
The results showed that explicit explanations, sufficient examples, and adequate guidance are chief principles to be followed during CT instruction. Group discussion, graphic organizers, and reading-related questions are all effective teaching methods, and proficiency-differentiated worksheets can provide language assistance for lower achievers. Besides, each CT skill requires specific teaching tips. For instance, when teaching categorizing, teachers should make items to be categorized familiar to students and keep the definition of the categories straightforward. When teaching comparing and contrasting, teachers can include clues on the graphic organizer or prepare discussion questions to help students sort similarities and differences. Making use of clue words is helpful in distinguishing facts from opinions and identifying the causal relationship. The results also showed that most students believed that CT is an important skill that should be learned. The learning of CT skills needs to be combined with school subjects, but not necessarily English. Among the six CT skills, categorizing and sequencing were considered easier to learn, while distinguishing facts from opinions and identifying the causal relationship, more challenging. Overall students acknowledged the benefits of CT instruction, especially with regard to their reading comprehension. Yet, some students concerned about the extra load incurred by CT instruction. Lastly, important pedagogical implications and suggestions for future studies were provided.

Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Surkes, M. A., Tamim, R., & Zhang, D. (2008). Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1102-1134.
Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL quarterly, 31(1), 71-94.
Atkinson, D. (1999). TESOL and culture. TESOL quarterly, 33(4), 625-654.
Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B. (1999). Conceptualizing critical thinking. Journal of curriculum studies, 31(3), 285-302.
Bensley, D. A. (1998). Critical thinking in psychology: A unified skills approach. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Beyer, B. K. (1987). Practical strategies for the teaching of thinking. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Birjandi, P., & Bagherkazemi, M. (2010). The relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ critical thinking ability and their professional success. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 135.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman, Green & Co.
Bonk, C. J., & Smith, G. S. (1998). Alternative instructional strategies for creative and critical thinking in the accounting curriculum. Journal of Accounting Education, 16(2), 261-293.
Brock, C. A. (1986). The effects of referential questions on ESL classroom discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 47-59.
Brown, T. (2004). Bloom's taxonomy. Critical thinking and learning: An encyclopedia for parents and teachers, 77-82.
Chaffee, J. (1985). Critical thinking. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Chang, S. J. (2013). Explanation and instruction notes on critical thinking and argumentative discourse skills addressed in the manual. Retrieved from http://english.tyhs.edu.tw/epaper/epaper99/share99_00.pdf
Chian, T, M. (2010). Critical literacy in English reading and writing in junior high school: an action research study. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan.
Chuang, Y, R. (2017). Teachers’ perceptions of the learning performance items in the 12-year basic education curriculum guidelines for junior high school English. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Chularut, P., & DeBacker, T.K. (2004). The influence of concept mapping on achievement, self-regulation, and self-efficacy in students of English as a second language. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 248-263.
Clement, J. (1979). Introduction to research in cognitive process instruction. In Lochhead, J. and Clement, J. (Eds.), Cognitive process instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Connor-Greene, P. A., & Greene, D. J. (2002). Science or snake oil? Teaching critical evaluation of “research” reports on the Internet. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 321– 324.
Davidson, B. (1998). Critical thinking faces the challenge of Japan. Inquiry, 14 (3), 41-53.
Davidson, B. W., & Dunham, R. L. (1996). Assessing EFL student progress in critical thinking with the Ennis-Weir critical thinking essay test. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED403302)
Day, C. (2003). Reading and responding in literature circles. Marrickville, Australia:
Primary English Teaching Association, PEN.
Diestler, S. (2001). Becoming a critical thinker: A user friendly manual (3rd ed.). US: Prentice Hall.
Dixson, M. D. (1991). Group discussion and individual critical thinking processes: An interactive perspective. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED336772)
Ebbutt, D. (1983a). Educational action research: Some general concerns and specific quibbles. Cambridge Institute of Education.
Egege, S., & Kutieleh, S. (2004). Critical thinking: Teaching foreign notions to foreign students. International Education Journal, 4(4), 75-85.
Elder, L. (2002). Teacher’s manuel: The miniature guide to critical thinking for children. Dillon Beach, CA; Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (1994). Critical thinking: Why we must transform our teaching. Journal of Development Education, 18(1), 34-35.
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (2003). Critical thinking: Teaching students how to study and learn (part IV). Journal of Developmental Education, 27(1), 36-37.
Elliott, J. (1981). Action research: A framework for self-evaluation in schools. Cambridge Institute of Education.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Millbrae, CA: The California Academic Press.
Fisher, A. (2011). Critical thinking: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Fogarty, R. (1997). Problem-based learning and other curriculum models for the multiple intelligences classroom. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED405143)
Fok, S. C. (2002). Teaching critical thinking skills in a Hong Kong secondary school. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(1), 83-91.
Fox, H. (1994). Listening to the world: Cultural issues in academic writing. National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana, IL.
Gao, C. (2016). Cultivating students’ critical thinking ability through simplified modal united nations conference. English Language Teaching, 9(3), 68.
Gardner, D. P., Larsen, Y. W., Baker, W. O., Campbell, A., Crosby, E. A., Foster C. A., Jr., et al. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. An open letter to the American people. A report to the nation and the secretary of Education. Washington, DC: National Commission on Excellence in Education. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED226006)
Ghaemi, H., & Taherian, R. (2011). The role of critical thinking in EFL teachers’ teaching success. MJAL, 3(1), 8-22.
Ghanizadeh, A. (2007). On the impact of concept mapping on EFL learners' reading comprehension. Paper presented at the forth conference on issues in language teaching in Iran, Tehran University.
Halonen, J. S. (1995). Demystifying critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 75–81.
Halpern, D. F. (1999). Teaching for critical thinking: Helping college students develop the skills and dispositions of a critical thinker. New directions for teaching and learning, 1999(80), 69-74.
Heyman, G. D. (2008). Children’s critical thinking when learning from others. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(5), 344–347.
Hongladarom, S. (2006) Asian philosophy and critical thinking: Divergence or convergence? Retrieved 19.6.2006 http://homepage.mac.com/soraj/web/APPEND.HTML
Hsiao, Y, S. (2014). The development of EFL learners' reading and critical thinking ability in WebQuest- a qualitative study. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Hsieh, H, C. (2014). Critical thinking through reflective writing on English news videos: using Edmodo in an EFL college writing course. Unpublished master’s thesis, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taiwan.
Huang, Y, Y. (2014). Critical thinking instruction for senior high school students in Taiwan: Designing, implementation and assessment. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huitt, W. (1998). Critical thinking: An overview. Educational psychology interactive, 3.
Jantrasakul, P. (2012). Utilizing critical thinking-based EFL lessons: A means to improve language skills and encourage student engagement in Thai EFL classes. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(6), 22-33.
Johnson, N. L. (1992). Thinking is the key: Questioning makes the difference. Creative Learning Consultants.
Kabilan, M. K. (2000). Creative and critical thinking in language classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(6), 1-3.
Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers.
Kemmis, K., & McTaggart, R. (2008). Participatory action research: Communicative action and the public sphere. In N. Denzin, & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative inquiry (3rd ed.; pp. 271-330). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kennedy, M., Fisher, M. B., & Ennis, R. H. (1991). Critical thinking: Literature review and needed research. Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications for reform, 2, 11-40.
Khodadady, E., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2011). The impact of concept mapping on EFL learners' critical thinking ability. English Language Teaching, 4(4), 49.
King, A. (1994). Guiding knowledge construction in the classroom: Effects of
teaching children how to question and how to explain. American Educational
Research Journal, 31, 338-368.
Ko, T, Y. (2015). The effect of the integration of critical thinking into English teaching on senior high school athletes. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Kubota, R. (1999). Japanese culture constructed by discourses: Implications for applied linguistics research and ELT. TESOL quarterly, 33(1), 9-35.
Kurfiss, J. G. (1988). Critical thinking: Theory, research, practice, and possibilities. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports, The George Washington University, One Dupont Circle, Suite 630, Dept. RC, Washington, DC 20036-1183.
Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review. Pearson's Research Reports, 6, 40-41.
Law, S. Y. (2012). Effective strategies for teaching young children critical
thinking through picture book reading: A case study in the New Zealand context. Unpublished master’s thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
Le Ha, P (2004). University classrooms in Vietnam: Contesting the stereotypes. ELT Journal 58(1), 50-57.
Levy, D. A. (1997). Tools of critical thinking: Metathoughts for psychology. US: Allyn and Bacon.
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of social issues, 2(4), 34-46.
Lewis, A., & Smith, D. (1993). Defining higher order thinking. Theory into practice, 32(3), 131-137.
Liaw, M.-L. (2007). Content-based reading and writing for critical thinking skills in an EFL context. English Teaching & Learning, 31(2), 45-87.
Lin, Y, Y. (2013). Using literature circles to develop critical thinking skills in a senior high EFL classroom in Taiwan. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
Lincoln, YS. & Guba, EG. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Lipman, M. (1991). Strengthening reasoning and judgement through philosophy. In Maclur & P. Davis (Eds.), Learning to think, thinking to learn, 103-113.
Long, C. J. (2003). Teaching critical thinking in Asian EFL contexts: Theoretical issues and practical applications. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 8th conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics.
McKernan, J. (1988). The countenance of curriculum action research: Traditional, collaborative, and emancipatory-critical conceptions. Journal of curriculum and supervision, 3(3), 173-200.
McKernan, J. (1991). Curriculum action research. London: Kogan Page.
McKernan, J. (1996). Curriculum action research: A handbook of methods and resources for the reflective practitioner. Psychology Press.
McKernan, J. (2007). Curriculum and imagination: Process theory, pedagogy and action research. Routledge.
McNiff, J. (2013). Action research: Principles and practice. Routledge.
McPeck, J. E. (1981). Critical thinking and education. NY, New York: St. Martin’s
Press.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass.
Nelson, C. E. (1994). Critical thinking and collaborative learning. New directions for teaching and learning, 1994(59), 45-58.
Norris, S. P., & Ennis, R. H. (1989). Evaluating critical thinking. Pacific Grove, CA: Midwest Publication.
Oliver, H., & Utermohlen, R. (1995). An innovative teaching strategy: Using critical thinking to give learners a guide to the future. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED 389702)
Park, Y. (2011). Using news articles to build a critical literacy classroom in an EFL
setting. TESOL Journal, 2(1), 24-51.
Paul, R. (1992). Critical thinking: Basic questions and answers. Think, April edition.
Paul, R. (1995). Critical thinking: How to prepare students for a rapidly changing world. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: The art of Socratic questioning. Journal of Developmental Education, 31(1), 36.
Potts, B. (1994). Strategies for teaching critical thinking. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 4(3), 1-12.
Renner, C. E. (1996). Enrich learners’ language production through content-based instruction. Paper presented at a National Conference on Linguae Nuova Didattica, Modena, Italy. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED 411694)
Riding, P., Fowell, S., & Levy, P. (1995). An action research approach to curriculum development. Information research, 1(1), 1-1.
Schafersman, S.D. (1991). An introduction to critical thinking. Retrieved from http://www.freeinquiry.com/critical-thinking.html.
Shen, P., & Yodkhumlue, B. (2012). A case study of teacher’s questioning and students’ critical thinking in college EFL reading classroom. International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(1), 199.
Shen, Y. J. (2016). Combining picture books with critical thinking in a high school EFL classroom in Taiwan: a case study of a municipal senior high school in Taoyuan city. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
Shiau, J. C. (2010). Using reciprocal teaching to develop thinking in a senior high
EFL classroom in Taiwan. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan
Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Siegel, H. (1988). Educating reason: Rationality, critical thinking, and education. New York: Routledge.
Siegal, M. (2000). Comments on Dwight Atkinson's “TESOL and Culture”. TESOL quarterly, 34(4), 744-747.
Stapleton, P. (2002). Critical thinking in Japanese L2 writing: Rethinking tired constructs. ELT Journal, 56(3), 250-257.
Stapleton, P. (2011). A survey of attitudes towards critical thinking among Hong Kong secondary school teachers: Implications for policy change. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 6(1), 14-23.
Stroupe, R. R. (2006). Integrating critical thinking throughout ESL curricula. TESL Reporter, 39(2), 42-60.
Talebinezhad, M. R., & Negari, G.M. (2007). The effect of explicit teaching of concept mapping in expository writing on EFL students’ self-regulation. The Linguistics Journal, 2(1), 69-90.
Tang, L. (2016). Exploration on cultivation of critical thinking in college intensive reading course. English Language Teaching, 9(3), 18-23.
Ten Dam, G., & Volman, M. (2004). Critical thinking as a citizenship competence: teaching strategies. Learning and instruction, 14(4), 359-379.
Thayer-Bacon, B. J. (2000). Transforming critical thinking: Thinking constructively. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Thomas, G., & Smoot, G. (1994). Critical thinking: A vital work skill. Trust for Educational Leadership, 23, 34-38.
Turnbull, B., & Evans, M. S. (2017). The effects of L1 and L2 group discussions on L2 reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 29(1), 133-154.
Van Gelder, T. (2005). Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science. College Teaching, 53(1), 41–48.
Vdovina, E., & Gaibisso, L. (2013). Developing critical thinking in the English language classroom: A lesson plan. ELTA Journal, 1(1), 54-68.
Wheeler, L. A., & Collins, S.K.R. (2003). The influence of concept mapping on critical thinking in baccalaureate nursing students. Journal of Professional Nursing, 19(6), 339-346.
Willingham, D. T. (2007). Critical thinking: Why is it so hard to teach? American Educator, 8-19.
Yukiko Ishikawa, Y., Sasaki, D., & Yamamoto, S. J. (2007). Integrating critical
thinking skills into the EFL classroom. CamTESOL Conference on English
language teaching: Selected Papers, Vol. 3, 207-210.
Zhang, L. F. (1999). A comparison of US and Chinese university students' cognitive development: The cross-cultural applicability of Perry's theory. The Journal of Psychology, 133(4), 425-439.
Zhou, J., Jiang, Y., & Yao, Y. (2015). The investigation on critical thinking ability in EFL reading class. English Language Teaching, 8(1), 83-94.
Zuber-Skerritt, O. (1992). Action research in higher education: Examples and reflections. London: Kogan Page.