簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

研究生: 林展蔚
Lin, Jhan-Wei
論文名稱: 翠斑草蜥的繁殖代價:繁殖、外寄生蟲、斷尾與存活率間之關係
The costs of reproduction in Takydromus viridipunctatus: the association among reproduction, ectoparasitism, autotomy and survival
指導教授: 林思民
Lin, Si-Min
學位類別: 博士
Doctor
系所名稱: 生命科學系
Department of Life Science
論文出版年: 2018
畢業學年度: 106
語文別: 英文
論文頁數: 148
中文關鍵詞: capture-mark-recapturecost and benefitlife historypopulation demographysquamatatail loss
英文關鍵詞: capture-mark-recapture, cost and benefit, life history, population demography, squamata, tail loss
DOI URL: http://doi.org/10.6345/DIS.NTNU.SLS.003.2018.D01
論文種類: 學術論文
相關次數: 點閱:175下載:14
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報
  • 無中文摘要

    Evolution of life history traits has fascinated biologists for decades. For a better understanding of this issue, the cost and benefit in survival and mating success are needed. Nevertheless, field studies are relatively rare due to the challenges of accessibility of real cost in the wild that leads ambiguous conclusions in literature. In this dissertation, I focused on two critical life history traits, reproduction and autotomy, of Takydromus viridipunctatus under ecological contexts that showed the cost and benefit of these traits in survival and mating success.
    These series of studies began at a monthly capture-mark-recapture (CMR) experiment at Jinshan Cape of northern Taiwan during 2006 to 2013. This 8-yeared study have accumulated over 20,000 pieces of CMR data from around 11,000 individuals with their morphological records. I first described their fundamental demography and the reproductive cycle in Chapter 1. My results showed annual patterns of reproductive traits in adults and a following emergence of juvenile indicating the breeding season of this species, starting in May and end in October. Males were slightly bigger than females in body weight, as well as had higher survival rate than female during the breeding season. The sex differences in morphology and survival consisted to the seasonal sexual dimorphism in this species.
    In Chapter 2, I examined the cost of reproduction and its association to ectoparasitism under natural condition. The tradeoff between reproduction and survival is a central theme in life-history theory, however, empirical studies that link the cost to survival in the wild are rare. By using lateral coloration in males, and biting scars and pregnancy situation in females as reproductive indexes, I tested the association between reproduction and ectoparasitism, then linked them to survival with CMR modeling. I found a positive association between reproductive indexes and ectoparasitism, as well as a substantially negative association between survival and ectoparasite load in both sexes. These results suggested that individuals with higher reproductive indexes had higher ectoparasitism and lower survival rate than that with lower indexes. The wild correlations from this long-termed and huge dataset clearly indicated a severe survival cost of reproduction and implied the extrinsic agent, ectoparasites, may playing a critical role in this trade-off.
    In Chapter 3, I examined the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis in males, the potential mechanism causing the association in Chapter 2. In Takyromus lizards, the lateral coloration are assumed as a sexual signal but no study address on it so far. Here, I tested this assumption, then linked this color to testosterone, mating success and the immunity cost of reproduction. I used wild correlation, hormone manipulation and female preference experiments to confirm the cause-effect relationships among lateral coloration, testosterone, immunity, and mating success. There was a positively association between testosterone level and the area of green color in wild males. The hormone manipulation indeed enhanced the area of green spots, locomotor performance and size of genital while reduces immunity simultaneously. However, males with testosterone treatment and green spots were preferred by female indicating the function of lateral coloration, as a sexual signal for females. This chapter showed a possible mechanism of the associations in males appeared in Chapter 2 and linked the green spots to mating success. Summarizing Chapter 2 and 3, I suggested that testosterone was the physiological factor to cause the benefit of mating success and the cost of immunity. Then extrinsic ectoparasite may played an ecological role that link this intrinsic tradeoff to survival under natural condition.
    In Chapter 4, I studied survival cost and benefit of autotomy and regeneration. Caudal autotomy has intrigued scientists over one century. Nevertheless, the lack of empirical study in wild remains this topic equivocal. I used the long-termed CMR data and a contemporary bird census to unravel the complicated associations among tail loss, predation pressure, and the survival cost and benefit of tail loss and regeneration. Autotomy records and abundance of 4 candidate bird predators were used to examine the association between tail loss and predation pressure. CMR modelling was performed to evaluate the survival cost of tail loss and the alleviation by regeneration. The results suggested that cattle egrets cause direct mortality while shrikes and kestrels influenced autotomy, showing the mismatch between autotomy rate and predation pressure. The survival cost of autotomy was severe, especially the 30% decline in males during the breeding season. Surprisingly, the survival revived after tail regrowth clearly indicating the survival benefit of regeneration. This chapter provided field evidences to resolve debates of autotomy and regeneration that increase our understanding about how this dramatic behaviour are maintained in lizards.

    List of tables III List of figures IV Abstract VII Chapter 1 The demography and reproductive pattern of green-spotted grass lizard Takydromus viridipunctatus (Squamata, Lacertidae) in a long-term monitored population in North Taiwan 1 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Material and methods 4 Results 7 Discussion 10 Tables and Figures 14 Chapter 2 The costs of reproduction: the relationship among reproduction, ectoparasite load and survival in a dense population of grass lizard Takydromus viridipunctatus 22 Abstract 22 Introduction 23 Materials and methods 26 Results 30 Discussion 33 Tables and Figures 37 Chapter 3 Testing immunocompetance handicap hypothesis in Takydromus viridipunctatus 60 Abstract 60 Introduction 61 Materials and methods 63 Results 68 Discussion 71 Tables and Figures 74 Chapter 4 Tail regeneration after autotomy revives survival: A case from a long-term monitored lizard population under avian predation 80 Abstract 80 Introduction 81 Material and methods 84 Results 88 Discussion 92 Tables and Figures 96 References 111 Appendix A: Tail regeneration after autotomy revives survival: a case from a long-term monitored lizard population under avian predation 123 Appendix B: Habitat Preference and Management of a Chinese Pond Turtle Population Protected by the Demilitarized Kinmen Islands 132 Appendix C: The effects of mite parasitism on the reproduction and survival of the Taiwan field mice (Apodemus semotus) 138

    Althoff, D. M., and J. N. Thompson. 1994. The effects of tail autotomy on survivorship and body growth of Uta stansburiana under conditions of high mortality. Oecologia 100:250-255.
    Andrews, R., and A. S. Rand. 1974. Reproductive effort in Anoline Lizards. Ecology 55:1317-1327.
    Arnold, E. N. 1984. Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives. Journal of Natural History 18:127-169.
    Arnold, E. N. 1988. Caudal autotomy as a defense.in C. Gans and R. B. Huey, editors. Biology of reptilia. Alan Liss, New York.
    Arnold, E. N. 1997. Interrelationships and evolution of the east Asian grass lizards, Takydromus (Squamata: Lacertidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 119:267-296.
    Barnard, C. J., J. M. Behnke, and J. Sewell. 1994. Social behaviour and susceptibility to infection in house mice (Mus musculus): effects of group size, aggressive behaviour and status-related hormonal responses prior to infection on resistance to Babesia microti. Parasitology 108:487-496.
    Bateman, P. W., and P. A. Fleming. 2009. To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years. Journal of Zoology 277:1-14.
    Belliure, J. 2004. Effect of testosterone on T cell-mediated immunity in two species of Mediterranean lacertid lizards. The journal of Experimental Zoology 301A:411.
    Bely, A. E., and K. G. Nyberg. 2010. Evolution of animal regeneration: re-emergence of a field. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25:161-170.
    Birchard, G. F., C. P. Black, G. W. Schuett, and V. Black. 1984. Influence of pregnancy on oxygen consumption, heart rate and hematology in the garter snake: Implications for the "cost of reproduction" in live bearing reptiles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 77:519-523.
    Bonnet, X., O. Lourdais, R. Shine, and G. Naulleau. 2002. Reproduction in a typical capital breeder: Costs, currencies, and complications in the aspic viper. Ecology 83:2124-2135.
    Brock, K. M., P. A. Bednekoff, P. Pafilis, and J. Foufopoulos. 2015. Evolution of antipredator behavior in an island lizard species, Podarcis erhardii (Reptilia: Lacertidae): The sum of all fears? Evolution 69:216-231.
    Brown, G. P., C. M. Shilton, and R. Shine. 2006. Do parasites matter? Assessing the fitness consequences of haemogregarine infection in snakes. Canadian Journal of Zoology 84:668-676.
    Bull, C. M., and D. Burzacott. 1993. The impact of tick load on the fitness of their lizard hosts. Oecologia 96:415-419.
    Bush, A. O., K. D. Lafferty, J. M. Lotz, and A. W. Shostak. 1997. Parasitology meets ecology on its own terms: Margolis et al. revisited. The Journal of Parasitology:575-583.
    Calisi, R. M., and G. E. Bentley. 2009. Lab and field experiments: Are they the same animal? Hormones and Behavior 56:1-10.
    Calsbeek, R., and R. M. Cox. 2010. Experimentally assessing the relative importance of predation and competition as agents of selection. Nature 465:613-616.
    Calsbeek, R., and D. J. Irschick. 2007. The quick and the dead: correlational selection on morphology, performance, and habitat use in island lizards. Evolution 61:2493-2503.
    Camargo, A., B. Sinervo, and J. W. Sites. 2010. Lizards as model organisms for linking phylogeographic and speciation studies. Molecular Ecology 19:3250-3270.
    Carothers, J. H. 1984. Sexual selection and sexual dimorphism in some herbivorous lizards. The American Naturalist 124:244-254.
    Chen, X. J., X. F. Xu, and X. Ji. 2003. Influence of body temperature on food assimilation and locomotor performance in white-striped grass lizards, Takydromus wolteri (Lacertidae). Journal of Thermal Biology 28:385-391.
    Christe, P., O. Glaizot, N. Strepparava, G. Devevey, and L. Fumagalli. 2012. Twofold cost of reproduction: an increase in parental effort leads to higher malarial parasitaemia and to a decrease in resistance to oxidative stress. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 279:1142-1149.
    Congdon, J. D., L. J. Vitt, and W. W. King. 1974. Geckos: adaptive significance and energetics of tail autotomy. Science 184:1379-1380.
    Cox, R. M., and R. Calsbeek. 2009. Sexually antagonistic selection, sexual dimorphism, and the resolution of intralocus sexual conflict. The American Naturalist 173:176-187.
    Cox, R. M., and R. Calsbeek. 2010. Severe costs of reproduction persist in Anolis lizards despite the evolution of a single-egg clutch. Evolution 64:1321-1330.
    Cox, R. M., and H. B. John-Alder. 2007. Increased mite parasitism as a cost of testosterone in male striped plateau lizards Sceloporus virgatus. Functional Ecology 21:327-334.
    Cox, R. M., E. U. Parker, D. M. Cheney, A. L. Liebl, L. B. Martin, and R. Calsbeek. 2010. Experimental evidence for physiological costs underlying the trade-off between reproduction and survival. Functional Ecology 24:1262-1269.
    Cox, R. M., D. S. Stenquist, J. P. Henningsen, and R. Calsbeek. 2009. Manipulating testosterone to assess links between behavior, morphology, and performance in the brown anole Anolis sagrei. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 82:686-698.
    Cromie, G. L., and D. G. Chapple. 2012. Impact of tail loss on the behaviour and locomotor performance of two sympatric Lampropholis skink species. PLoS ONE 7:e34732.
    Daniels, C. B., S. P. Flaherty, and M. P. Simbotwe. 1986. Tail size and effectiveness of autotomy in a lizard. Journal of Herpetology 20:93-96.
    DeNardo, D. F. 1994. Effects of corticosterone on activity and home-range size of free-ranging male lizards. Hormones and Behavior 28:53.
    Descamps, S., J. M. Gaillard, S. Hamel, and N. G. Yoccoz. 2016. When relative allocation depends on total resource acquisition: implication for the analysis of trade-offs. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 29:1860-1866.
    Dial, B. E., and L. C. Fitzpatrick. 1983. Lizard tail autotomy: function and energetics of postautotomy tail movement in Scincella lateralis. Science 219:391-393.
    Downes, S., and R. Shine. 2001. Why does tail loss increase a lizard's later vulnerability to snake predators? Ecology 82:1293-1303.
    Du, W. G., and X. Ji. 2006. Effects of constant and fluctuating temperatures on egg survival and hatchling traits in the northern grass lizard (Takydromus septentrionalis, Lacertidae). Journal of Experimental Zoology Part a-Comparative Experimental Biology 305A:47-54.
    Du, W. G., X. Ji, Y. P. Zhang, X. F. Xu, and R. Shine. 2005. Identifying sources of variation in reproductive and life-history traits among five populations of a Chinese lizard (Takydromus septentrionalis, Lacertidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 85:443-453.
    Endler, J. A. 1980. Natural selection on color patterns in Poecilia reticulata. Evolution 34:76-91.
    Endler, J. A. 1983. Natural and sexual selection on color patterns in poeciliid fishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 9:173-190.
    Evans, M. R., A. R. Goldsmith, and S. R. Norris. 2000. The effects of testosterone on antibody production and plumage coloration in male house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 47:156-163.
    Fleming, P. A., D. Muller, and P. W. Bateman. 2007. Leave it all behind: a taxonomic perspective of autotomy in invertebrates. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 82:481-510.
    Folstad, I. 1992. Parasites, bright males, and the immunocompetence handicap. The American Naturalist 139:603.
    Foo, Y. Z., S. Nakagawa, G. Rhodes, and L. W. Simmons. 2017. The effects of sex hormones on immune function: a meta-analysis. Biological Reviews 92:551-571.
    Fox, F. S., and K. J. McCoy. 2000. The effects of tail loss on survival, growth, reproduction, and sex ratio of offspring in the lizard Uta stansburiana in the field. Oecologia 122:327-334.
    Fox, S. F., S. Perea-Fox, and R. C. Franco. 1994. Development of the tail autotomy adaptation in lizards under disparate levels of predation at high and low elevations in Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist:311-322.
    Fredericq, L. 1892. Nouvelles recherches sur l'autotomie chez le Crabe. Archvies de Biologie 12:169-197.
    Gasser, M., M. Kaiser, D. Berrigan, and S. Stearns. 2000. Life‐history correlates of evolution under high and low adult mortality. Evolution 54:1260-1272.
    Giery, S. T., and C. A. Layman. 2015. Interpopulation variation in a condition-dependent signal: predation regime affects signal intensity and reliability. The American Naturalist 186:187-195.
    Gillis, G. B., L. A. Bonvini, and D. J. Irschick. 2009. Losing stability: tail loss and jumping in the arboreal lizard Anolis carolinensis. Journal of Experimental Biology 212:604-609.
    Greives, T., J. McGlothlin, J. Jawor, G. Demas, and E. Ketterson. 2006. Testosterone and innate immune function inversely covary in a wild population of breeding dark‐eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis). Functional Ecology 20:812-818.
    Hamilton, W., and M. Zuk. 1982. Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Science 218:384-387.
    Hamilton, W. D., R. Axelrod, and R. Tanese. 1990. Sexual reproduction as an adaptation to resist parasites (a review). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87:3566-3573.
    Hamilton, W. J., and R. Poulin. 1997. The Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis revisited: a meta-analytical approach. Behaviour 134:299-320.
    Harshman, L. G., and A. A. Hoffmann. 2000. Laboratory selection experiments using Drosophila: what do they really tell us? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15:32-36.
    Harshman, L. G., and A. J. Zera. 2007. The cost of reproduction: the devil in the details. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22:80-86.
    Higham, T. E., and A. P. Russell. 2010. Flip, flop and fly: modulated motor control and highly variable movement patterns of autotomized gecko tails. Biology Letters 6:70-73.
    Higham, T. E., A. P. Russell, and P. A. Zani. 2013. Integrative biology of tail autotomy in lizards. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 86:603-610.
    Hosken, D. J. 2001. Sex and death: microevolutionary trade-offs between reproductive and immune investment in dung flies. Current Biology 11:R379-R380.
    Huang, W.-S. 1998. Reproductive cycles of the grass lizard, Takydromus hsuehshanensis, with comments on reproductive patterns of lizards from the central high elevation area of Taiwan. Copeia:866-873.
    Huang, W. S. 2006. Ecology and reproductive patterns of the grass lizard, Takydromus sauteri, in a tropical rain forest of an east Asian island. Journal of Herpetology 40:267-273.
    Hudson, P. J., A. Rizzoli, B. T. Grenfell, H. Heesterbeek, and A. P. Dobson. 2002. The ecology of wildlife diseases. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
    Huey, R. B. 1982. Temperature, physiology, and the ecology of reptiles.in Biology of the Reptilia. Citeseer.
    Huey, R. B., E. R. Pianka, and T. W. schoener. 1983. Lizard Ecology - studies of a model organism. Hardvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
    Hunter, J. 1861. Essays and observations on natural history, anatomy, physiology, psychology and geology. Van Voorst, London.
    Jacobson, E. R. 2007. Parasites and parasitic diseases of reptiles. Pages 571-666 in E. R. Jacobson, editor. Infectious diseases and pathology of reptiles: color atlas and text. FL: CRC Press, Boca Raton.
    Ji, X., W. G. Du, Z. H. Lin, and L. G. Luo. 2007. Measuring temporal variation in reproductive output reveals optimal resource allocation to reproduction in the northern grass lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 91:315-324.
    Ji, X., W. H. Zhou, X. D. Zhang, and H. Gu. 1998. Sexual Dimorphism and Reproduction in the Grass Lizard Takydromus septentrionalis. Russian Journal of Herpetology 5:44-48.
    Kearney, M., and W. Porter. 2009. Mechanistic niche modelling: combining physiological and spatial data to predict species’ ranges. Ecology Letters 12:334-350.
    Kearney, M., and W. P. Porter. 2004. Mapping the fundamental niche: physiology, climate, and the distribution of a nocturnal lizard. Ecology 85:3119-3131.
    Ketterson, E. D., and V. Nolan Jr. 1992. Hormones and life histories: an integrative approach. The American Naturalist:S33-S62.
    Klukowski, M., C. E. Nelson, and N. M. Jenkinson. 1998. Effects of testosterone on locomotor performance and growth in field‐active northern fence lizards, Sceloporus undulatus hyacinthinus. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 71:506-514.
    Knapp, R., and M. C. Moore. 1997. A non-invasive method for sustained elevation of steroid hormone levels in reptiles. Herpetological Review 28:33-36.
    Kratochvil, L., and L. Kubicka. 2007. Why reduce clutch size to one or two eggs? Reproductive allometries reveal different evolutionary causes of invariant clutch size in lizards. Functional Ecology 21:171-177.
    Kuo, C.-C., C.-J. Yao, T.-E. Lin, H.-C. Liu, Y.-C. Hsu, M.-K. Hsieh, and W.-S. Huang. 2013. Tail loss compromises immunity in the many-lined skink, Eutropis multifasciata. Naturwissenschaften 100:379-384.
    Kurtz, J., M. Kalbe, Langefors, xc, sa, I. Mayer, M. Milinski, D. Hasselquist, A. Associate Editor: Elizabeth, x, Regan, and C. W. Editor: Michael. 2007. An experimental test of the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis in a teleost fish: 11-ketotestosterone suppresses innate immunity in three-spined sticklebacks. The American Naturalist 170:509-519.
    Lailvaux, S. P., A. Herrel, B. Vanhooydonck, J. J. Meyers, and D. J. Irschick. 2004. Performance capacity, fighting tactics and the evolution of life-stage male morphs in the green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 271:2501-2508.
    Lailvaux, S. P., and D. J. Irschick. 2006. No Evidence for Female Association with High-Performance males in the Green Anole Lizard, Anolis carolinensis. Ethology 112:707-715.
    Landwer, A. J. 1994. Manipulation of egg production reveals costs of reproduction in the tree lizard (Urosaurus ornatus). Oecologia 100:243-249.
    Langkilde, T., and R. Shine. 2006. How much stress do researchers inflict on their study animals? A case study using a scincid lizard, Eulamprus heatwolei. Journal of Experimental Biology 209:1035-1043.
    Lebreton, J. D., K. P. Burnham, J. Clobert, and D. R. Anderson. 1992. Modeling survival and testing biological hypotheses using marked animals - a unified approach with case-studies. Ecological Monographs 62:67-118.
    Lee, S. J., M. S. Witter, I. C. Cuthill, and A. R. Goldsmith. 1996. Reduction in escape performance as a cost of reproduction in gravid starlings, Sturnus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 263:619-623.
    Libby, T., T. Y. Moore, E. Chang-Siu, D. Li, D. J. Cohen, A. Jusufi, and R. J. Full. 2012. Tail-assisted pitch control in lizards, robots and dinosaurs. Nature 481:181-184.
    Lin, S. M., C. A. Chen, and K. Y. Lue. 2002. Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the grass lizards genus Takydromus (Reptilia : Lacertidae) of East Asia. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 22:276-288.
    Lin, Z. H., and X. Ji. 2005. Partial tail loss has no severe effects on energy stores and locomotor performance in a lacertid lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis. Journal of Comparative Physiology B 175:567-573.
    Losos, J. B. 2009. Lizards in an evolutionary tree, ecology and adaptive radiation of Anoles. University of California Press, Berkeley.
    Losos, J. B., K. I. Warhelt, and S. T. W. 1997. Adaptive differentiation following experimental island colonization in Anolis lizard. Nature 387:70-73.
    Lue, K. Y., and S. M. Lin. 2008. Two new cryptic species of Takydromus (Squamata: Lacertidae) from Taiwan. Herpetologica 64:379-395.
    Luo, L., Y. Wu, Z. Zhang, and X. Xu. 2012. Sexual size dimorphism and female reproduction in the white-striped grass lizard Takydromus wolteri. Current Zoology 58:236-243.
    Møller, A. P., and N. Saino. 2004. Immune response and survival. Oikos 104:299-304.
    Maginnis, T. L. 2006. The costs of autotomy and regeneration in animals: a review and framework for future research. Behavioral Ecology 17:857-872.
    Margolis, L., G. Esch, J. Holmes, A. Kuris, and G. Schad. 1982. The use of ecological terms in parasitology (report of an ad hoc committee of the American Society of Parasitologists). The Journal of Parasitology 68:131-133.
    Martin, J., and R. A. Avery. 1998. Effects of tail loss on the movement patterns of the lizard, Psammodromus algirus. Functional Ecology 12:794-802.
    Martin, L., P. Han, J. Lewittes, J. Kuhlman, K. Klasing, and M. Wikelski. 2006. Phytohemagglutinin‐induced skin swelling in birds: histological support for a classic immunoecological technique. Functional Ecology 20:290-299.
    McElroy, E. J., and P. J. Bergmann. 2013. Tail autotomy, tail size, and locomotor performance in lizards. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 86:669-679.
    McGlothlin, J. W., J. M. Jawor, and E. D. Ketterson. 2007. Natural variation in a testosterone‐mediated trade‐off between mating effort and parental effort. The American Naturalist 170:864-875.
    Medel, R. G., Jim, xe, J. E. nez, S. F. Fox, Jaksi, x, and F. M. 1988. Experimental evidence that high population frequencies of lizard tail autotomy indicate inefficient predation. Oikos 53:321-324.
    Mills, S., xa, C, L. Hazard, L. Lancaster, T. Mappes, D. Miles, T. Oksanen, xa, A, B. Sinervo, A. Associate Editor: Elizabeth, x, Regan, and C. W. Editor: Michael. 2008. Gonadotropin hormone modulation of testosterone, immune function, performance, and behavioral trade-offs among male morphs of the lizard Uta stansburiana. The American Naturalist 171:339-357.
    Mills, S. C., A. Grapputo, I. Jokinen, E. Koskela, T. Mappes, T. A. Oksanen, and T. Poikonen. 2009. Testosterone‐mediated effects on fitness‐related phenotypic traits and fitness. The American Naturalist 173:475-487.
    Moore, S. L., and K. Wilson. 2002. Parasites as a viability cost of sexual selection in natural populations of mammals. Science 297:2015-2018.
    Mougeot, F., J. R. Irvine, L. Seivwright, S. M. Redpath, and S. Piertney. 2004. Testosterone, immunocompetence, and honest sexual signaling in male red grouse. Behavioral Ecology 15:930-937.
    Nicholson, K. E., L. J. Harmon, and J. B. Losos. 2007. Evolution of Anolis lizard dewlap diversity. PLoS ONE 2:e274.
    Niewiarowski, P., J. Congdon, A. Dunham, L. Vitt, and D. Tinkle. 1997. Tales of lizard tails: effects of tail autotomy on subsequent survival and growth of free-ranging hatchling Uta stansburiana. Canadian journal of zoology 75:542-548.
    Olsson, M., R. Shine, E. Wapstra, B. Ujvari, T. Madsen, and S. Pitnick. 2002. Sexual dimorphism in lizard body shape: the roles of sexual selection and fecundity selection. Evolution 56:1538-1542.
    Ota, H., M. Honda, S. L. Chen, T. Hikida, S. Panha, H. S. Oh, and M. Matsui. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships, taxonomy, character evolution and biogeography of the lacertid lizards of the genus Takydromus (Reptilia : Squamata): a molecular perspective. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 76:493-509.
    Owen‐Ashley, N. T., D. Hasselquist, and J. C. Wingfield. 2004. Androgens and the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis: unraveling direct and indirect pathways of immunosuppression in song sparrows. The American Naturalist 164:490-505.
    Pafilis, P., J. Foufopoulos, N. Poulakakis, P. Lymberakis, and E. D. Valakos. 2009. Tail shedding in island lizards [Lacertidae, Reptilia]: decline of antipredator defenses in relaxed predation environments. Evolution 63:1262-1278.
    Pafilis, P., E. D. Valakos, and J. Foufopoulos. 2005. Comparative postautotomy tail activity in six Mediterranean lacertid lizard species. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 78:828-838.
    Perry, G., K. LeVering, I. Girard, and T. Garland. 2004. Locomotor performance and social dominance in male Anolis cristatellus. Animal Behaviour 67:37-47.
    Peters, A. 2000. Testosterone treatment is immunosuppressive in superb fairy–wrens, yet free–living males with high testosterone are more immunocompetent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 267:883-889.
    Pianka, E. R. 1970. Comparative autecology of the lizard Cnemidophorus tigris in different parts of its georgraphic range. Ecology 51:703-720.
    Pianka, E. R., and W. S. Parker. 1975. Age-specific reproductive tactics. The American Naturalist 109:453-464.
    Pianka, E. R., and L. J. Vitt. 2003. Lizards: Windows to the Evolution of Diversity. University of California Press, Oakland, USA.
    Poulin, R. 1996. Sexual inequalities in helminth infections: a cost of being a male? The American Naturalist 147:287-295.
    Poulin, R. 2007. Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
    Poulton, E. B. 1895. Theories of evolution. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History 26:371-393.
    Promislow, D. E. L. 1992. Costs of sexual selection in natural populations of mammals. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 247:203-210.
    Reedy, A. M., C. L. Cox, A. K. Chung, W. J. Evans, and R. M. Cox. 2016. Both sexes suffer increased parasitism and reduced energy storage as costs of reproduction in the brown anole, Anolis sagrei. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 117:516-527.
    Reznick, D. 1985. Costs of reproduction: an evaluation of the empirical evidence. Oikos 44:257.
    Reznick, D. 1992. Measuring the costs of reproduction. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 7:42-45.
    Reznick, D., L. Nunney, and A. Tessier. 2000. Big houses, big cars, superfleas and the costs of reproduction. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15:421-425.
    Reznick, D. A., H. Bryga, and J. A. Endler. 1990. Experimentally induced life-history evolution in a natural population. Nature 346:357-359.
    Reznick, D. N., M. J. Bryant, D. Roff, C. K. Ghalambor, and D. E. Ghalambor. 2004. Effect of extrinsic mortality on the evolution of senescence in guppies. Nature 431:1095-1099.
    Roberts, M. L., K. L. Buchanan, and M. R. Evans. 2004. Testing the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis: a review of the evidence. Animal Behaviour 68:227-239.
    Roberts, M. L., K. L. Buchanan, D. Hasselquist, and M. R. Evans. 2007. Effects of testosterone and corticosterone on immunocompetence in the zebra finch. Hormones and Behavior 51:126-134.
    Rose, M. R., and B. Charlesworth. 1981. Genetics of Life History in DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER. II. Exploratory Selection Experiments. Genetics 97:187-196.
    Saino, N., A. M. Bolzern, and A. P. Møller. 1997. Immunocompetence, ornamentation, and viability of male barn swallows (Hirundo rustica). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94:549-552.
    Salvador, A. 1997. Testosterone supplementation in subordinate, small male lizards: consequences for aggressiveness, color development, and parasite load. Behavioral Ecology 8:135.
    Salvador, A., J. Martin, and P. López. 1995. Tail loss reduces home range size and access to females in male lizards, Psammodromus algirus. Behavioral Ecology 6:382-387.
    Schoener, T. W. 1979. Inferring the properties of predation and other injury‐producing agents from injury frequencies. Ecology 60:1110-1115.
    Schwarzkopf, L. 1993. Costs of Reproduction in Water Skinks. Ecology 74:1970-1981.
    Schwarzkopf, L., and R. Shine. 1992. Costs of reproduction in lizards: escape tactics and susceptibility to predation. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 31:17-25.
    Seigel, R. A., M. M. Huggins, and N. B. Ford. 1987. Reduction in locomotor ability as a cost of reproduction in gravid snakes. Oecologia 73:481-485.
    Shaner, P. J., Y. R. Chen, J. W. Lin, J. J. Kolbe, and S. M. Lin. 2013. Sex-specific correlations of individual heterozygosity, parasite load, and scalation asymmetry in a sexually dichromatic lizard. PLoS ONE 8:e56720.
    Shang, G., Y. J. Yang, and P. H. Li. 2009. Field guide to amphibians and reptiles in Taiwan. Owl Publishing House Co., Taipei, Taiwan.
    Sheldon, B. C., and S. Verhulst. 1996. Ecological immunology: costly parasite defences and trade-offs in evolutionary ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:317-321.
    Shine, R. 1980. "Costs" of reproduction in reptiles. Oecologia 46:92-100.
    Shine, R., and A. E. Greer. 1991. Why are clutch sizes more variable in some species than in others? Evolution 45:1696-1706.
    Sinervo, B., B. Heulin, Y. Surget-Groba, J. Clobert, D. B. Miles, A. Corl, A. Chaine, and A. Davis. 2007. Models of density-dependent genic selection and a new rock-paper-scissors social system. The American Naturalist 170:663-680.
    Sinervo, B., F. Mendez-De-La-Cruz, D. B. Miles, B. Heulin, E. Bastiaans, M. Villagrán-Santa Cruz, R. Lara-Resendiz, N. Martínez-Méndez, M. L. Calderón-Espinosa, and R. N. Meza-Lázaro. 2010. Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches. Science 328:894-899.
    Smits, J., G. R. Bortolotti, and J. L. Tella. 1999. Simplifying the phytohaemagglutinin skin‐testing technique in studies of avian immunocompetence. Functional Ecology 13:567-572.
    Stearns, S. C. 1992. The evolution of life histories. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
    Stearns, S. C. 2000. Life history evolution: successes, limitations, and prospects. Naturwissenschaften 87:476-486.
    Stuart, Y. E., T. Campbell, P. Hohenlohe, R. G. Reynolds, L. Revell, and J. Losos. 2014. Rapid evolution of a native species following invasion by a congener. Science 346:463-466.
    Sumner, F. B., and H. H. Collins. 1918. Autotomy of the Tail in Rodents. Biological Bulletin 34:1-6.
    Takeishi, M., and Y. Ono. 1986. Spatial relationship among individuals of the Japanese lacertid Takydromus tachydromoides (Sauria, Lacertidae). Ecological research 1:37-46.
    Takenaka, S. 1981. Maturity and other reproductive traits of the Kanahebi lizard Takydromus tachydromoides (Sauria, Lacertidae) in Mito. Japanese Journal of Herpetology 9:46-53.
    Tinkle, D. W. 1967. The life and demography of the side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana. Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Zoology University of Michigan 132:1–182
    Tinkle, D. W., H. M. Wilbur, and S. G. Tilley. 1970. Evolutionary strstegies in lizard reproduction. Evolution 24:55-74.
    Tokarz, R. R., A. V. Paterson, and S. McMann. 2005. Importance of dewlap display in male mating success in free-ranging brown anoles (Anolis sagrei). Journal of Herpetology 39:174-177.
    Tseng, S. P., S. H. Li, C. H. Hsieh, H. Y. Wang, and S. M. Lin. 2014. Influence of gene flow on divergence dating - implications for the speciation history of Takydromus grass lizards. Molecular Ecology 23:4770-4784.
    Tseng, S. P., C. J. Wang, S. H. Li, and S. M. Lin. 2015. Within-island speciation with an exceptional case of distinct separation between two sibling lizard species divided by a narrow stream. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 90:164-175.
    Václav, R., P. Prokop, and V. Fekiac. 2007. Expression of breeding coloration in European Green Lizards (Lacerta viridis): variation with morphology and tick infestation. Canadian journal of zoology 85:1199-1206.
    Van Noordwijk, A. J., and G. de Jong. 1986. Acquisition and allocation of resources: their influence on variation in life history tactics. The American Naturalist 128:137-142.
    Vanhooydonck, B., A. Herrel, J. J. Meyers, and D. J. Irschick. 2009. What determines dewlap diversity in Anolis lizards? An among-island comparison. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22:293-305.
    Vanhooydonck, B., A. Herrel, R. Van Damme, J. J. Meyers, and D. J. Irschick. 2005. The relationship between dewlap size and performance changes with age and sex in a Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis) lizard population. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 59:157-165.
    Veiga, J. P. 1998. Reproductive effort affects immune response and parasite infection in a lizard: a phenotypic manipulation using testosterone. Oikos 82:313.
    Verhulst, S., S. Dieleman, and H. Parmentier. 1999. A tradeoff between immunocompetence and sexual ornamentation in domestic fowl. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96:4478-4481.
    Vitt, L. J., and W. E. Cooper Jr. 1986. Tail loss, tail color, and predator escape in Eumeces (Lacertilia: Scincidae): age-specific differences in costs and benefits. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64:583-592.
    Wake, D. B., and I. G. Dresner. 1967. Functional morphology and evolution of tail autotomy in salamanders. Journal of Morphology 122:265-305.
    Wang, Y. Y., S. P. Gong, P. Liu, and X. Wang. 2017. A new species of the genus Takydromus (Squamata: Lacertidae) from Tianjingshan Forestry Station, northern Guangdong, China. Zootaxa 4338:441-458.
    Webb, J. K. 2006. Effects of tail autotomy on survival, growth and territory occupation in free‐ranging juvenile geckos (Oedura lesueurii). Austral Ecology 31:432-440.
    White, G. C., and K. P. Burnham. 1999. Program MARK: survival estimation from populations of marked animals. Bird Study 46:120-139.
    Williams, G. C. 1966. Natural selection, the costs of reproduction, and a refinement of Lack's principle. The American Naturalist 100:687-690.
    Williams, P. D., T. Day, Q. Fletcher, and L. Rowe. 2006. The shaping of senescence in the wild. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21:458-463.
    Wilson, B. S. 1992. Tail injuries increase the risk of mortality in free-living lizards (Uta stansburiana). Oecologia 92:145-152.
    Wilson, R. S., and D. T. Booth. 1998. Effect of tail loss on reproductive output and its ecological significance in the skink Eulamprus quoyii. Journal of Herpetology 32:128-131.
    Xu, X., and X. Ji. 2000. A comparison of egg and hatchling characteristics of two lacertid lizards. Chinese Journal of Zoology 35:15-19.
    Zahavi, A. 1975. Mate selection—A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology 53:205-214.
    Zani, P. A. 1996. Patterns of caudal-autotomy evolution in lizards. Journal of Zoology 240:201-220.
    Zera, A. J. 2001. The physiology of life history trade-offs in animals. Annual review of ecology and systematics 32:95.
    Zuk, M., and A. M. Stoehr. 2002. Immune defense and host life history. The American Naturalist 160:S9-S22.

    下載圖示
    QR CODE