2030年永續發展議程中指出，在2020年以前，必須保育及永續利用海洋與海洋資源，以永續的方式管理及保護海洋與海岸生態，實現健康又具有生產力的海洋。
被熱帶海洋圍繞的馬來西亞，長久以來以珊瑚礁、紅樹林及海龜為主要的海洋保育對象，沿岸的海草床則較不被重視。然而，全世界的海草正在急速減少中，上個世紀，全球海草的覆蓋率已下降了約30%。近年來，馬來西亞出現了一些關懷在地海草床保育的非政府環保組織及環境教育私人公司，分別透過海草及海馬的監測、親子海洋教育等活動，以一系列的海草床保育行動及教育活動，帶領民眾及社區居民一同進行海草床保育。
在環保組織成員的帶領下，馬來西亞的海草床及相關環境議題已逐漸受到關注。本研究目的旨在探討海草床保育團體的發展歷程、行動策略，通過了解團體成員的反思歷程，完整呈現組織成員在組織發展過程中建立起的個人行動能力，以作為組織未來發展建議的參考依據。研究者提出的研究問題為：
一、馬來西亞海草床保育團體的發展脈絡及運作方式為何？
二、馬來西亞推展海草床保育的行動與策略為何？
三、海草床保育團體成員之環境行動能力在保育團體中扮演著什麼角色？
本研究以Jensen & Schnack(1997)提出的行動能力觀點作為質化資料的分析準則。本研究以深度訪談為主要的資料收集，研究結果將以民主素養與批判性思考為基礎，歸納出推動馬來西亞海草床保育團體成員所具備的知識與洞察力、承諾、願景及行動經驗四大行動能力要素。研究發現組織成員在推動海洋保育行動時融入了強烈的民主觀點及批判性思考，且各項行動能力要素間存在著相互影響的關係。

Abstract

According to the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, it states that by 2020, conservation and sustainable use of marine and marine resources will be managed in a sustainable way to protect marine and coastal ecology. Having a healthy and productive sea is one of the target in the agenda.

Malaysia is surrounded by tropical oceans, where has been paying a lot of attention on the conservation of coral reefs, mangroves and turtles. However, seagrass bed near the coastal area has been neglected for a long time. In the last century, 30% of global seagrass had disappeared and still decreasing rapidly. There is a number of environmental NGO and organization which concern with the seagrass issue were established recently. They spread the awareness about protecting the seagrass ecology through volunteer seahorse tagging programs and parents and kids marine education programs. Their target is to reach out to the public and local community to involve themselves in the environment around them.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the action strategies and key factors of the individual’s action competence of the NGO. The research questions are as following:

1. What is the development and operation model of the NGO?
2. What kind of actions and strategies took by the NGO to protect the seagrass bed in Malaysia?
3. What is the individual’s action competence and the role they played in the marine conservation NGO?

Action competence proposed by Jensen & Schnack (1997) will be the analytical approach to the qualitative data in this research. This study is based on in-depth interviews as the main data collection. The result of the research is using the democratic literacy and critical thinking to summarize the knowledge and insights, commitment, vision and action experience of the members from Malaysia’s marine conservation NGO. The study found that members of the seagrass protecting NGO promoted the marine conservation action with a strong democratic point of view and critical thinking and there is a close relationship between the elements of the action competence and it will affect each other.

一、中文文獻
王心怡（2014）。以行動能力觀點探討海洋保育個案研究 -以郭道仁台灣東北角萊式擬烏賊保育為例。（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台灣師範大學，台北市。
王文科（2000）。質的研究問題與趨勢。載於國立中正大學教育研究所（主編），質的研究方法（1-21）。高雄：麗文。
王文科、王智弘（2009）。教育研究法（增訂第十三版）。台北市：五南。
王虎（2011）。馬來西亞環保非政府組織淺析。南洋問題研究，146，81-88。
王愛莉（2015）。「台灣珊瑚礁體檢」應用於海洋保護教育之探討。（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台灣師範大學，台北市。
王麗容（1991）。民間環保組織在社區環保運動中的角色和功能。社區發展季刊，56，127-131。
丘昌泰（1993）。美國環境保護政策：環境年代發展經驗的評估。台北市：台灣產業基金會。
江明修、陳定銘（2000）。台灣非營利組織政策遊說的途徑與策略。公共行政學報，4，153-192。
江慧儀（2004）。台灣民間環保團體的環境教育現況與社會實踐—一個批判的環境教育觀點。（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台灣師範大學，台北市。
何明修（2006）。綠色民主：台灣環境運動的研究。台北市：群學。
吳靖國（2009）。海洋教育：教科書、教師與教學。台北市：五南。
李政賢（譯）（2014）。質性研究——從開始到完成（原作者：Robert K. Yin）。台北市：五南。（原著出版年：2010）
杜默（譯）（1998）。海洋之歌——全球海洋生態發現之旅（原作者：Carl Safina）。。台北市：先覺。（原著出版年：2000）
汪靜明（1995）。自然保育內涵及其教育特徵。環境教育季刊，26，23-36。
周儒（1995）。民間團體與環境教育的推展。台灣教育，532，37-46。
周儒（1997）。民間團體推動環境教育模式之研究（II）。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究成果報告（編號：NSC85-2511-S-003-009），未出版。
周儒、張子超（1995）。民間團體推動環境教育模式之研究（I）。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究成果報告（編號：NSC84-2511-S-003-004Z），未出版。
邵廣昭（1998）。海洋生態學。台北市：明文書局。
邵廣昭（1999）。為台灣之海洋生物請命。中研院動物研究所：第三屆海洋環境大會—尋回台灣的海洋生物，VII。
柯智仁（2004）。台灣海草分類與分布之研究。國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文，高雄市。
張子超（2000）。九年一貫課程環境教育課程融入的內涵與教學。台灣教育，589，12-21。
張子超、周儒（1998）。民間團體推動環境教育活動內涵之研究。師大學報：科學教育類，43(1)，27-45。
莊安祺（譯）（1997）。海之濱（原作者：Rachel Carson）。台北市：天下遠見。（原著出版年：1955）
許世璋（2001年）。環境議題與行動導向的環境教育。載於環境教育研討會論文集（51-58）。台北市：國立台灣師範大學環境教育研究所。
許戰洲、羅勇、朱艾嘉、蔡偉敘（2009）。海草床生態系統的退化及其恢復。生態學雜誌，28(12)，2613-2618。
郭進隆、齊若蘭（譯）（2010）。第五項修練（全新增訂版）（原作者：Peter M. Senge）。台北市：遠見天下文化。（原著出版年：1990）
傅崑成編校（2001）。聯合國海洋法公約。取自http://maritimeinfo.moi.gov.tw/ marineweb/pdf/D02.pdf
曾華壁（2001）。人與自然-台灣現代環境史論。台北市：正中書局。
楊冠政（1997）。保育教育的目標及內涵。環境教育季刊，34，2-6。
楊冠政（2006）。環境教育。台北市：明文書局。
葉至誠（2000）。社會科學概論（初版）。台北市：楊智文化。
詹榮桂（1999）。台灣海洋環境的生態教育。環境教育季刊，39，33-46。
潘淑滿（2003）。質性研究：理論與應用。台北市：心理出版社。
潘慧玲（2003）。教育研究的取徑：概念與應用。台北市：高等教育出版社。
聯合國永續發展大會（2012年6月）。我們想要的未來（The Future We Want。取自http://www.bcsd.org.tw/sites/default/files/node/story/482.upload.1515.pdf
鍾文琳（2004）。從提升學校效能談學校行政領導。南港高工學報，22，327-350。

二、英文文獻
Angle, H. L., & Perry, L. L. (1981), An empirical assessment of organizational commitment and organizational effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(1), 1-14. doi:10.2307/2392596
Bujang, J. S., Zakaria, M. H., & Arshad, A. (2006). Distribution and significance of seagrass ecosystems in Malaysia. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9(2), 203-214. doi:10.1080/14634980600705576
Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Walker, D. (1993). Using experience for learning. United Kingdom: Open University Press.
Breiting, S.R., & Mogensen, F. (1999). Action competence and environmental education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 29(3), 349-353. doi:10.1080/ 0305764990290305
Burke, L., Selig E., & Spalding M. (2002). Reefs at risk in Southeast Asia. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.
Choo, C. K. (2007). Final project report on saving seahorses in the Pulai River Estuary, Malaysia, 2006-2007 (Save Our Seahorses. Project Report No. 1, 39pp.). Retrieved from http://www.rufford.org/files/37.04.06%20Detailed%20Final%20 Report.pdf
Choo, C. K., & Liew, H. C. (2005). Exploitation and trade in seahorses in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal, 57(1), 57-66.
Choo, C. K., Rahman S., & Khor, H. M. (2009). S.O.S. files: A journey to Sungai Pulai. Malaysia: self-published.
CITES (Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) (2002). Amendments to Appendices I and II of the convention adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its 12th meeting in Santiago, Chile, from the 3rd to 15th November 2002. Retrieved from http://www.cites.org/eng/cop/12/ Adopted_Amendments.pdf.
Dasmann, R. F. (1984). Environmental conservation. New York: Wiley.
DMPM (Department of Marine Park Malaysia) (2010). What is Marine Park, Putra jaya, Malaysia. Retrieved from http://www.dmpm.nre.gov.my/85-what_is_ marine_park.html.
Edmund, P. G., & Frederick, T. S. (2003). World Atlas of Seagrasses. California: University of California Press.
Fish and Wildlife Research Institute-Seagrass project. Retrieved from http://myfwc. com/research/habitat/seagrasses/projects/
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems nalyses. Global Environmental Change, 16, 253-267.
Fourqurean, J. W., Duarte, C. M., Kennedy, H., Marbà, N., Holmer, M., Mateo, M. A., Apostolaki, E. T., Kendrick, G. A., Krause-Jensen, D., McGlathery, K. J., & Serrano, O. (2012). Seagrass ecosystems as a globally significant carbon stock. Nature Geoscience, 5: 505-509. doi:10.1038/ngeo1477
Gillis, L. G., Bouma, T. J., Jones, C. G., Van Katwijk, M. M., Nagelkerken, I., Jeuken, C. J. L., Herman, P. M. J., & Ziegler, A.D. (2014). Potential for landscape-scale positive interactions among tropical marine ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 503, 289-303. doi:10.3354/meps10716.
Goodwin, H. L., & Schaadt, J. G. (1978). A Statement on the Need for Marine and Aquatic Education to Inform Americans About the World of Water. Delaware: University of Delaware.
Gunderson, L. H., & Holling, C. S. (2002). Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Nature Systems.
Haigh, M. J. (2006). Promoting Environmental Education for Sustainable Development: The Value of Links between Higher Education and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30(2), 327-349. doi:10.1080/03098260600717422
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, 1-23.
Hinrichsen, D. (2011). The Atlas of Coasts & Oceans- Mapping Ecosystems, Threatened Resources and Marine Conservation. 44-45.
Natural Classroom. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/penangmangrove.
International Union for Consercation of Nature (IUCN) (1980). World Conservation Strategy. Retrieved from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/wcs-004.pdf
Jacobson, S. K., McDuff, M. D., & Monroe, M. C. (2006). Changing Conservation Behaviors. Conservation Education and Outreach Techniques, 61-80. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198567714.001.0001
Jensen, B. B., Kofoed, J., Uhrenholdt, G., & Vognsen, C. (1995). Environmental Education in Denmark – the Jægerspris Project. Research centre for environmental and health education. The royal Danish school of educational studies.
Jensen, B. B., & Nielsen, K. (2003). Action-oriented environmental education: clarifying the concept of action. Journal of Environmental Education Research, 1(1): 173-194.
Jensen, B. B., & Schnack, K. (1997). The action competence approach in environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 3(2), 163-178. doi: 10.1080/ 1350462970030205
Jorgensen, D. (1989). Participation Observation: A methodology for human studies. London: Sage.
Kanter, R. M. (1968), Commitment and social organization: A study of commitment mechanisms in utopian communities, American Sociological Review, 33(4), 499-517.
Keith, F. P. (2005). Introduction to Social Research-Qualitative & Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage.
Lim, A. C. O., Chong, V. C., Wong, C. S., & Choo, C. K. (2011). Diversity, habitats and conservation theats of syngnathid (Snygnathidae) fishes in Malaysia. Tropical Zoology 24, 193-222.
Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. H. (1984). Analyzing Socila Settings. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia (2010). National Coastal Resources and Marine Environment Profile of Malaysia. Malaysia: MIMA.
Okinawa–Seagrass-Watch. Retrieved from http://www.seagrasswatch.org/okinawa.html.
Orth, R. J., Carruthers, T. J. B., Dennison, W. C., Duarte, C. M., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck Jr., K. L., Hughes, A. R., Kendrick, G. A., Kenworthy, W. J., Olyarnik, S., Short, F. T., Waycott, M., & Williams, S. L. (2006). A Global Crisis for Seagrass Ecosystems. BioScience, 56(12), 987-996. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56 [987:AGCFSE]2.0.C
Perante, N. C., Pajaro, M. G., Meeuwig, J. J., & Vincent, A. C. J. (2002). Biology of a seahorse species, Hippocampus comes in the central Philippines. Journal of Fish Biology, 60(4), 821-837. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2002.tb02412.x
Perry, A. L., Lunn, K. E., & Vincent, A. C. J. (2010). Fisheries, large-scale trade, and conservation of seahorses in Malaysia and Thailand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 20(4), 464-475. doi:10.1002/aqc.1112
Peyton, R. B. (1977). An assessment of teacher’s ability to identify, teach, and implement environmental action skills. Illinois: South Illinois University.
Porter, L. W., & Smith, F. J. (1970). The Etiology of Organizational Commitment. California: University of California.
Red List of Threatened species (Version 2010.4). Retrieved from http://www.iucnred list.org.
Unsworth, R. K. F., & Cullen, L. C. (2010). Recognising the necessity for Indo-Pacific seagrass conservation. Conservation Letters, 3(2), 63-73. doi:10.1111/ j.1755-263X.2010.00101.x
Save Our Seahorse: Pulai River Estuary, Retrieved from http://www.sosmalaysia.org/ pulai-river-estuary_1.html.
Schultz, P. W. (2002). Inclusion with Nature: The Psychology Of Human-Nature Relation.. Psychology of Sustainable Development, 61-78. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0995-0_4
Seagrass-Watch. Retrieved from http://www.seagrasswatch.org/about.html.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature. New York: Free Press.
Stogdill, R. M., & Shartle, C. L. (1948). Methods for determining patterns of leadership behavior in relation to organization structure and objectives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32(3), 286-291.
Tasker, G., Aldridge, L., & Unwin, S. (2009). Social and Ethical Issues in Sexuality EducationYears 12–13. Christchurch: Christchurch College of Education.
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: The List of Wetlands of International Importance. Retrieved from http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf.
UNESCO-UNEP (1977). The Tbilisi Declaration, Intergovernmental conference on environmental education.
Vincent, A. C. J. (1996). The international trade in seahorses. Cambridge: TRAFFIC International.
Waycott, M., Duarte, C. M., Carruthers, T. J. B., Orth, R. J., Dennison, W. C., Olyarnik, S., Calladine, A., Fourqurean, J. W., Heck, Jr, K. L., Hughes, A. R., Kendrick, G. A., Kenworthy, W. J., Short, F. T., & Williams, S. L. (2009). Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(30), 12377-12381. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0905620106
World Seagrass Association. Retrieved from http://wsa.seagrassonline.org/
WWF International (2015). Living Blue Planet Report: Species, habitats and human well-being. Switzerland: NCP SA and Cavin SA.
WWF Malaysia (2007). Environmental Citizenship: A report on emerging perspectives in Malaysia.