本研究旨在探討英國黑色電影的獨特性以及此電影類型所呈現的倫理觀點。「黑色電影」一詞普遍令人聯想到「美國黑色電影」，而現今主流論述也常將美國黑色電影的特性直接視為是黑色電影類型的普遍性特徵。但正因此觀點過於主流，大部分學者尤其在討論「美國以外」的黑色電影時，卻常被這些實為美國黑色電影的特性所侷限。本文試圖對此美國中心觀點提出質疑和反思，並透過闡述黑色電影在英國文化脈絡下的發展，指出人性與倫理議題為英國黑色電影裡最重要且獨特的面向。本文奠基於維根斯坦的「家族相似性」概念，說明英國黑色電影之所以為noir並不是因為它與（美國）黑色電影類型有著共同、決定性的特徵。Noir的「家族」——noir一詞在日常語言中所形成的各種用法及意義——本身就存在一系列異質且錯綜交織的關係（相似、變化、差異等），而英國黑色電影之所以為noir是因為它彰顯這家族裡一部分特定的面相，並非因為它符合黑色電影類型裡所謂的普遍性特徵。基於英、美黑色電影之間存在著異中有同、同中有異的家族相似性，本研究不認同一味地利用美國中心觀點來凝視英國黑色電影（美國犯罪小說角度、德國表現主義風格、道德敗壞的世界觀、硬漢男性焦慮與主體性、致命與性、存在主義疏離等），而是注重英國黑色電影本身未被討論的殊相（英國諜報小說觀點、後帝國情懷、英國本土社會文化因素、共同體與溝通議題、人性和人的處境等）。藉由這些脈絡及主題，本文指出英國黑色電影展現了一種「集體式」的倫理觀點，而此類型中的道德議題與人的共存模式也實而存在著密不可分的關係。透過分析《虎膽忠魂》、《布萊頓棒棒糖》和《黑獄亡魂》，並借鏡艾瑞斯·梅鐸、阿倫卡·祖班契奇和讓-呂克·南希等學者與此倫理觀點相關的概念，本文勾勒出英國黑色電影裡各種呈現人類情態與道德困境的獨特電影修辭，並闡釋這些敘事與視覺形式如何反映當時英國不同的道德態度。

This study explores the various ways in which the category of British film noir evinces its particularities against today’s dominant film noir discourse, which is basically American-noir-centred. It further stakes out the ethical aspect of human life as the most salient specificity of the British noir strand. By relying on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s notion of “family resemblance,” I claim that the reason why British noir is “noir” is not because of the logic of universality (i.e. that it shares “essential” noir traits identifiable within the [American] film noir genre), but because the British variety already represents certain aspects of a whole set of heterogenous and intricate relationships—similarities, variations, differences—existent within the noir “family.” Considering this, I examine the many unexplored yet exclusive aspects of British noir (its unique contexts like the spy genre, post-imperial sentiments, local socio-cultural factors, etc., and its key issues regarding community and communication, humanity and the human condition, etc.). In this, I challenge dominant critical positions, which often merely approach British noir through American-informed lenses (crime fiction, German Expressionist style, a demoralised modern city/world, hard-boiled subjectivity, fatal sexuality, existentialist alienation, etc.). With British-specific elements being parsed out, I argue that ethical concerns, as well as a “collective” outlook onscreen that regards human life as an intricate mode of existence, are the most significant “noir” aspects of British noir. In light of this angle, and drawing on apposite critical lenses from philosophers like Iris Murdoch, Alenka Zupančič and Jean-Luc Nancy, I analyse three British noir paragons, Odd Man Out (1947), Brighton Rock (1948) and The Third Man (1949). I tease out and sketch the rhetorical forms in British noir that present moral scenarios and implications in various ways, which may inform pertinently the diverse moral attitudes within contemporary Britain.

Ades, Dawn. “Why Film?.” In Dalí & Film, edited by Matthew Gale, 9-31. London: Tate Modern, 2007.
Agamben, Giorgio. The Coming Community. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007.
Allen, Jessica, Sonia Livingstone and Robert Reiner, “True Lies: Changing Images of Crime in British Postwar Cinema.” European Journal of Communication 13, no. 1 (1998): 53-75.
Altman, Rick. Film/Genre. London: British Film Institute, 2000.
Anderson, Lindsay. “Get Out and Push!.” Encounter 9, no. 5 (1957): 14-22.
Antonaccio, Maria. A Philosophy to Live By: Engaging Iris Murdoch. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Bazin, André. Orson Welles: A Critical View. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.
———. Qu’est-ce que le cinéma?. Paris: Les éditions du Cerf, 1958.
Belton, John. American Cinema/American Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013.
Bergstrom, Janet. “Warning Shadows: German Expressionism and American Film Noir.” In Film Noir, edited by Homer B. Pettey and R. Barton Palmer, 38-57. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014.
Bernstein, Richard. Radical Evil: A Philosophical Interrogation. Cambridge: Polity, 2002.
Bessel, Richard. “Death and Survival in the Second World War.” In The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume III, edited by Michael Geyer and Adam Tooze, 252-276. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Bloom, Clive. “The Spy Thriller: A Genre Undercover?.” In Spy Thrillers: From Buchan to le Carré, edited by Clive Bloom, 1-11. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1990.
Booth, Philip. “Hemingway’s ‘The Killers’ and Heroic Fatalism: From Page to Screen (Thrice).” Literature/Film Quarterly 35, no. 1 (2007): 404-411.
Borde, Raymond, and Etienne Chaumeton. A Panorama of American Film Noir 1941–1953. Translated by Paul Hammond. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2002.
Bordwell, David. “The Bounds of Difference.” In The Classical Hollywood Cinema, edited by David Bordwell, Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson, 72-87. London: Routledge, 2005.
Bould, Mark. Film Noir: From Berlin to Sin City. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
Boyce, Michael W. The Lasting Influence of the War on Postwar British Film. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Bowen, Elizabeth, Graham Greene, and V.S. Pritchett. Why Do I Write? London: Percival Marshall, 1948,
Breu, Christopher. Hard-boiled Masculinities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005.
Broe, Dennis. Class, Crime and International Film Noir: Globalizing America’s Dark Art. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Bronfen, Elisabeth. “Femme Fatale: Negotiations of Tragic Desire.” New Literary History 35, no. 1 (2004): 103-116.
Brunsdon, Charles. “Space in the British Crime Film.” In British Crime Cinema, edited by Steve Chibnall and Robert Murphy, 153-164. London: Routledge, 2005.
Carroll, Noël. Art in Three Dimensions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Carpenter, Lynette. “‘I Never Knew the Old Vienna’: Cold War Politics and The Third Man.” Film Criticism 3, no, 1 (1978): 27-34.
Chabrol, Claude. “Evolution of the Thriller.” In Cahiers du Cinéma, The 1950s: Neo-Realism, Hollywood, New Wave, edited by Jim Hillier, 158-164. Translated by Liz Heron. London: British Film Institute, 1985.
Chandler, Raymond. Raymond Chandler: Later Novels & Other Writings. Edited by Frank MacShane. New York: The Library of America, 1995.
Chapman, James. “British Cinema and the Second World War.” In A Companion to British and Irish Cinema, edited by John Hill, 67-83. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2019.
———. Hitchcock and the Spy Film. London: I. B. Taurus, 2018.
Chartier, Jean-Pierre. “Americans are also Making Noir Films.” In Film Noir Reader 2, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 21-24. Translated by Alain Silver.
Chibnall, Steve and Robert Murphy, eds. British Crime Cinema. London: Routledge, 2005.
Copjec, Joan, Introduction to Radical Evil, vii-xxvii. Edited by Joan Copjec. London: Verso, 1996.
———. Introduction to Shades of Noir, vii-xii. Edited by Joan Copjec. London: Verso, 1993.
———. “The Phenomenal Nonphenomenal: Private Space in Film Noir.” In Shades of Noir, edited by Joan Copjec, 167-198. London: Verso, 1993.
Cowie, Elizabeth. “Film Noir and Women.” In Shades of Noir, edited by Joan Copjec, 121-166. London: Verso, 1993.
Crowther, Bosley. “Young Scarface, British Film Based on Graham Greene Novel, Opens at Rialto.” New York Times (New York, NY), Nov. 8, 1951.
Davies, Alistair and Alain Sinfield, eds. British Culture of the Postwar. Oxon: Routledge, 2000.
Dearey, Melissa. Making Sense of Evil. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Deleuze, Gilles. “The Philosophy of Série Noire.” Translated by Timothy S. Murphy. Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture 34, no. 1-2 (2001): 5-10.
DeFelice, James. Filmguide to Odd Man Out. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975.
DeVitis, A. A. Graham Greene. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986.
Denning, Michael. Cover Stories: Narrative and Ideology in the Britain Spy Thriller. London: Routledge, 1987.
Desser, David. “Global Noir: Genre Film in the Age of Transnationalism.” In Film Genre Reader IV, edited by Barry Keith Grant, 628-648. Austin: University of Texas, 2012.
Dickos, Andrew. Street with No Name: A History of the Classic American Film Noir. Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 2002.
Dickstein, Morris. Dancing in the Dark: A Cultural History of the Great Depression. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Dinerstein, Joel. “’Emergent Noir’: Film Noir and the Great Depression in High Sierra (1941) and This Gun for Hire (1942).” Journal of American Studies 42, no. 3 (2008): 415-448.
Dolar, Mladen. “The Spectator Who Knew Too Much.” In Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Lacan, edited by Slavoj Žižek, 129-136. London: Verso, 1992.
Doss, Erika. “Hopper’s Cool: Modernism and Emotional Restraint.” American Art 29, no. 3 (2015): 2-27.
Duhammel, Marcel. Preface to A Panorama of American Film Noir 1941-1953, xxiii-xxv. By Raymond Borde and Étienne Chaumeton. Translated by Paul Hammond. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2002.
Durgnat, Raymond. “Paint It Black: The Family Tree of Film Noir.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 37-51. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
———. “Some Lines of Inquiry into Post-war British Crimes.” In The British Cinema Book, edited by Robert Murphy, 247-258. London: British Film Institute, 2009.
Dyer, Richard. Brief Encounter. London: British Film Institute, 1993.
———. Pastiche. London: Routledge, 2007.
Eisner, Lotte. The Haunted Screen. Translated by Roger Greaves. London: Thames & Hudson, 1969.
Eliot, T. S. Selected Essays. London: Faber & Faber, 1932.
Elsaesser, Thomas. European Cinema: Face to Face with Hollywood. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005.
———. Weimar Cinema and After: Germany’s Historical Imaginary. Abingdon: Routledge, 2009.
Erickson, Glen. “Expressionist Doom in Night and the City.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 203-208. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Erickson, Todd. “Kill me Again: Movement becomes a Genre.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 307-329. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Evans, Peter William. “Double Indemnity.” In The Movie Book of Film Noir, edited by Ian Cameron, 165-173. London: Studio Vista, 1992.
———. “The Third Man: Construction of the Self.” Forum for Modern Language Studies 31, no. 1 (1995): 37-48.
Everson, William K. “British Film Noir.” Films in Review 38, no. 5 (1987): 285-289.
———. “British Film Noir: Part II.” Films in Review 38, no. 6-7 (1987): 340-346.
Forbes, Jill. “The ‘Série Noire.’” In France and the Mass Media, edited by Brian Rigby and Nicholas Hewitt, 85-97. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1991.
Forshaw, Barry. British Crime Film: Subverting the Social Order. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
Forster, E. M. Two Cheers for Democracy. New York: Harcourt, 1951.
Frank, Nino. “A New Kind of Police Drama: The Criminal Adventure.” In Film Noir Reader 2, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 15-20. Translated by Alain Silver. New York: Limelight Editions, 2003.
Gaines, Philip. “Noir 101.” In Film Noir Reader 2, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 329-342.
Gillett, Philip. The British Working Class in Postwar Film. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003.
Greene, Graham. Collected Essays. London: Bodley Head, 1969.
———. Ways of Escape. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980.
Gribble, Jim. “The Third Man: Graham Green and Carol Reed.” Literature/Film Quarterly 26, no. 3 (1998): 235-239.
Gross, Larry. “Film Après Noir.” Film Comment 12, no. 4 (1976): 44-49.
Grossman, Julie. Rethinking the Femme Fatale in Film Noir: Ready for Her Close-Up. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Haeffner, Nicholas. Alfred Hitchcock. Harlow: Pearson, 2005.
Hammett, Dashiell. Dashiell Hammett: Crime Stories and Other Writings. Edited by Steven Marcus. New York: The Library of America, 2001.
Hanson, Helen and Catherine O’Rawe. “Cherchez la femme.” In The Femme Fatale: Images, Histories, Contexts, edited by Helen Hanson and Catherine O’Rawe, 1-8. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Harvey, Sylvia. “Woman’s Place: The Absent Family of Film Noir.” In Women in Film Noir, edited by E. Ann Kaplan, 35-46. London: British Film Institute, 1998.
Higham, Charles and Joel Greenberg. “Noir Cinema.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 27-36. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Higson, Andrew. “Critical Theory and ‘British Cinema.’” Screen 24, no. 4-5 (1983): 80-95.
———. Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Hill, John. Cinema and Northern Ireland. London: British Film Institute, 2006.
———. “Images of Violence,” In Cinema and Ireland, edited by Kevin Rocket, Luke Gibbons and John Hill, 147-193. London: Routledge, 1988.
Hillier, Jim. 100 Film Noirs. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Hirsch, Foster. The Dark Side of the Screen: Film Noir. New York: A. S. Barnes, 1981.
Hise, James Van. “The Art That Dared To Be Wild.” In Pulp Art: Original Cover Painting for the Great American Pulp Magazines, edited by Robert Lesser, 105-106. New York: Sterling, 2005.
Hornsey, Richard. The Spiv and the Architect: Unruly Life in Postwar London. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
Horsley, Lee “Dead Dolls and Deadly Dames: The Cover Girls of American True Crime Publishing.” In Crime Culture: Figuring Criminality in Fiction and Film, edited by Bran Nicol, Eugene McNulty and Patricia Pulham, 109-121. London: Continuum, 2011.
———. Twentieth-Century Crime Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Hughes, David. “The Spivs.” In The Age of Austerity: 1945-1951, edited by French, Philip and Michael Sissons, 69-88. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Hunter, Jefferson. English Filming, English Writing. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010.
Irwin, John T. Unless the Threat of Death is Behind Them: Hard-Boiled Fiction and Film Noir. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Johnston, Claire. “Double Indemnity.” In Women in Film Noir, edited by E. Ann Kaplan, 89-98. London: British Film Institute, 1998.
Kant, Immanuel. Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason And Other Writings. Translated and Edited by Allen Wood and George Di Giovani. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Kaplan, E. Ann, Introduction to Women of Film Noir, 1-14. Edited by E. Ann Kaplan. London: British Film Institute, 1998.
Keaney, Michael F. British Film Noir Guide. Jefferson: McFarland, 2008.
Kerr, Paul. “Out of What Past? Notes on the B Film Noir.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 107-128. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Knight, Deborah. “The Third Man: Ethics, Aesthetics, Irony.” In Ethics at the Cinema, edited by. Ward E. Jones and Samantha Vice, 285-299. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Kracauer, Siegfried. Siegfried Kracauer’s American Writings: Essays on Film and Popular Culture. Edited by Johannes von Moltke and Kristy Rawson. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2012.
Krutnik, Frank. In a Lonely Street: Film Noir, Genre, and Masculinity. London: Routledge, 2001.
Landy, Marcia. British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930-1960. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
Leach, Jim. British Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
———. “British Film Noir.” In International Noir, edited by Homer B. Petty and R. Barton Palmer, 14-35. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014.
Lee, A. Robert. “Cracked Bells and Really Intelligent Detonators: Dislocation in Conrad’s The Secret Agent.” In Spy Thrillers: From Buchan to le Carré, edited by Clive Bloom, 12-27. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1990.
Lesser, Robert. Pulp Art: Original Cover Painting for the Great American Pulp Magazines. Edited by Robert Lesser. New York: Sterling, 2005.
Lovell, Alan. “The British Cinema: The Known Cinema.” In The British Cinema Book, edited by Robert Murphy, 5-12. London: British Film Institute, 2009.
Maltby, Richard. “The Politics of the Maladjusted Text.” In The Movie Book of Film Noir, edited by Ian Cameron, 39-48. London: Studio Vista, 1992.
Mayer, Geoff. Roy Ward Baker. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.
McFarlane, Brian. “Losing the Peace: Some British Films of Postwar Adjustment,” In Screening the Past: Film and the Representation of History, edited by Tony Barta, 93-108. Westport: Praeger, 1998.
———. “Outrage: No Orchids for Miss Blandish,” In British Crime Cinema, edited by Steve Chibnall and Robert Murphy, 37-50. London: Routledge, 2005.
Menand, Louis. “The Promise of Freedom, the Friend of Authority: American Culture in Postwar France.” In Americanism: New Perspectives on the History of an Ideal, edited by Michael Kazin and Joseph A. McCartin, 205-220. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
Miller, Laurence. “Evidence for a British Film Noir Cycle.” Film Criticism 16, no. 1/2 (1991): 42-51.
Minns, Raynes. Bombers and Mash: The Domestic Front 1939-45. London: Virago Press, 1999.
Moore. G. E. “Wittgenstein’s Lectures in 1930-33.” In Ludwig Wittgenstein: Philosophical Occasions, edited by James C. Klagge and Alfred Nordmann, 46-114. Cambridge: Hackett, 1993.
Moss, Robert F. The Films of Carol Reed. Hampshire: Macmillan, 1987.
Murdoch, Iris. Existentialists and Mystics. London: Penguin, 1997.
———. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin Books, 1993.
———. The Sovereignty of Good. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Murphy, Robert. “Blacklisted American Directors and ’50s British Noir.” In Kiss the Blood Off My Hands, edited by Robert Miklitsch, 152-170. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014.
———. “Dark Shadows: Around Pinewood and Ealing.” Film International 2, no. 1 (2004): 28-35.
———. Realism and Tinsel: Cinema and Society in Britain 1939-1949. London: Routledge, 2005.
———. “Riff-raff: British Cinema and the Underworld.” In All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema, edited by Charles Barr, 286-305. London: British Film Institute, 1986.
Nancy, Jean-Luc. The Inoperative Community. Translated by Peter Connor, Lisa Garbus, Michael Holland, and Simona Sawhney. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991.
Naremore, James. More Than Night: Film Noir in Its Contexts. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2008.
Neale, Steve. Genre and Hollywood. London: Routledge, 2005.
Orwell, George. George Orwell: A Collection of Essays. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1954.
Norris, Andrew. “Jean-Luc Nancy on the Political.” In Jean-Luc Nancy and Plural Thinking, edited by Peter Gratton and Marie-Eve Morin, 143-158. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012)
Petty, Homer B. “The Noir Impulse.” In International Noir, edited by Homer B. Petty and R. Barton Palmer, 1-13. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014.
Place, Janey, and Lowell Peterson. “Some Visual Motifs of Film Noir.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 65-76. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Plain, Gill. John Mills and British Cinema: Masculinity, Identity and Nation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
Porfirio, Robert. “The Strange Case of Film Noir.” In A Companion to Film Noir, edited by Andrew Spicer and Helen Hanson, 17-32. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2013.
Pulleine, Tim. “Spin a Dark Web.” In British Crime Cinema, edited by Steve Chibnall and Robert Murphy, 27-36. London: Routledge, 2005.
Reed, Roger T. “The Pulps: Their Weaknesses Were Their Strengths,.” In Pulp Art: Original Cover Painting for the Great American Pulp Magazines, edited by Robert Lesser, 13-14. New York: Sterling, 2005.
Richards, Jeffrey. Films and British National Identity: From Dickens to Dad’s Army. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997.
Rodríguez Granell, Ana. “When Criticism Meets Gangster Films: The Spiv Cycle as Oppositional Aesthetics in Postwar Britain.” In A Companion to the Gangster Film, edited by George S. Larke‐Walsh, 211-227. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2019.
Rohmer, Eric and Claude Chabrol. Hitchcock: The First Forty-Four Films. Translated by Stanley Hochman. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1979.
Rosenbaum, Jonathan. Discovering Orson Welles. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007.
Ryall, Tom. Alfred Hitchcock and the British Cinema. London: The Athlone Press, 1996.
———. “Film Noir, American Painting and Photography.” In A Companion to Film Noir, edited by Andrew Spicer and Helen Hanson, 158-174. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2013.
———. “Gaumont Hitchcock.” In A Companion to Alfred Hitchcock, edited by Thomas Leitch and Leland Poague, 270-288. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2011.
Salván, Paula Martín. The Language of Ethics and Community in Graham Greene’s Fiction. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
Schatz, Thomas. Hollywood Genres. New York: Random House, Inc. 1981.
Schrader, Paul. “Notes on Film Noir.” In Film Noir Reader, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 53-64. New York: Limelight Editions, 1996.
Seed, David. “Spy Fiction.” In The Cambridge Companion to Crime Fiction, edited by Martin Priestman, 115-134. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Silver, Alain, James Ursini and Elizabeth Ward. The Film Noir Encyclopedia. New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2010.
Simpson, Philip. “Noir and the Psycho Thriller.” In A Companion to Crime Fiction, edited by Charles J. Rzepka and Lee Horsley, 187-197. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.
Spicer, Andrew, “The Emergence of the British Tough Guy.” In British Crime Cinema, edited by Steve Chibnall and Robert Murphy, 83-96. London: Routledge, 2005.
———. Film Noir. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
———. Introduction to A Companion to Film Noir, 1-14. Edited by Andrew Spicer and Helen Hanson. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2013.
———. Introduction to European Film Noir, 1-22. Edited by Andrew Spicer. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007.
Stam, Robert, Robert Burgoyne and Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics. London: Routledge, 1999.
Stott, Rebecca. The Fabrication of the Late-Victorian Femme Fatale. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992.
Studlar, Gaylyn. “‘The Corpse on Reprieve’ Film Noir’s Cautionary Tales of ‘Tough Guy’ Masculinity.” In A Companion to Film Noir, edited by Andrew Spicer and Helen Hanson, 369-386. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2013.
Symons, Julian. Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel. New York: Warner Books, 1992.
Telotte, J. P. Voices in the Dark: The Narrative Patterns of Film Noir. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
Thompson, Jon. Fiction, Crime, and Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Thompson, Kristin and David Bordwell. Film History: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Todorov, Tzvetan. The Poetics of Prose. Translated by Richard Howard. Oxford: Blackwell, 1977.
Truffaut, François. Hitchcock. Translated by François Truffaut. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985.
Vincendeau, Ginette. “Noir Is Also a French Word.” In The Movie Book of Film Noir, edited by Ian Cameron, 49-58. London: Studio Vista, 1992.
Walker, Michael. Introduction to The Movie Book of Film Noir, 8-38. Edited by Ian Cameron. London: Studio Vista, 1992.
Wartenberg, Thomas E. Thinking on Screen: Film as Philosophy. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
White, Rob. The Third Man. London: British Film Institute, 2003.
Williams, Tony. “British Film Noir.” In Film Noir Reader 2, edited by Alain Silver and James Ursini, 243-269. New York: Limelight Editions, 2003.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
———. The Blue and Brown Books. Edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and G. H. von Wright. Oxford: Blackwell. 1958.
Wollen, Peter. Paris Hollywood: Writings on Film. London: Verso, 2002.
Žižek, Slavoj. “Da Capo senza Fine.” In Contingency, Hegemony, Universality, edited by Judith Butler, Ernesto Laclau and Slavoj Žižek, 213-262. London: Verso, 2000.
———. Enjoy Your Symptom! Jacques Lacan in Hollywood and Out. London: Routledge, 1992.
———. Looking Awry: An Introduction to Jacques Lacan through Popular Culture. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1991.
———. “‘The Thing That Thinks’: The Kantian Background of the Noir Subject.” In Shades of Noir, edited by Joan Copjec, 199-226. London: Verso, 1993.
Zupančič, Alenka. Ethics of the Real. London: Verso, 2000.
Zurier, Rebecca. Picturing the City: Urban Vision and the Ashcan School. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006.