本研究目的運用Bateson遊戲理論的觀點探討幼兒於假裝遊戲之信號及後設溝通內涵，並進一步分析不同族裔組合之幼兒於假裝遊戲的信號及後設溝通之內涵。研究方法採取質性取向，場域以立意取樣於花蓮縣境內阿汪附幼（化名），該附幼共有三個班級，皆採混齡主題教學，而本研究參與者為小花班（化名）的28名幼兒，且幼兒族裔的分布相當平均。此外，研究者角色為觀察參與者，以不干涉幼兒的遊戲活動為主，而資料蒐集方式主要是以系統化的觀察，輔以研究參與者的訪談、幼兒作品的蒐集，以及教師資料的提供，最後分析的架構為重複閱讀Bateson遊戲理論的觀點（遊戲框架、信號及後設溝通之概念），還有觀察研究的札記找尋重點與教師及幼兒的訪談內容，並透過開放式編碼進行分類與歸納，秉持這些嚴謹步驟，將原始資料經由有系統的模式逐步抽絲剝繭，期以呈現不同族裔組合（例如：原漢新、漢新、原漢及原新）之幼兒於假裝遊戲之信號及後設溝通內涵。本研究結果顯示：（1）在開啟假裝遊戲之信號及後設溝通出現族裔組合、個別族裔和表述形式的不同，但後設溝通都以相同澄清和解釋的策略來了解出現在想像情境裡有關真實環境的符號，以及玩物所指涉的行為，最後要在商店與餐廳知識及經驗的意義達共識才能有效啟動想像情境；（2）在維持假裝遊戲之信號及後設溝通沒有族裔組合與表述形式的不同，但他們都為延續想像情境，會用釐清、建議和協商的策略來了解出現在想像情境裡與真實世界行為不合邏輯的經驗或狀態，最後要在既合乎現實餐廳的脈絡，又不破壞目前情節的意義達共識才能有效延續想像情境；（3）在終止假裝遊戲之信號及後設溝通也沒有族裔組合與表述形式的不同，不過為了要結束想像情境，會用討論和修補的策略來了解出現在想像情境裡遊戲角色與用餐經驗有衝突的事件、立場和行動，最後要在符合餐廳經營條件的意義達共識才有能有效結束想像情境；（4）不分族裔組合之幼兒在開啟、維持與終止假裝遊戲的想像情境時，他們的後設溝通都會出現暫停遊戲角色和活動以真實身份來討論和說明行為舉止的意義。

The objectives of the research were to investigate preschool children’s signals and metacommunication in pretend play from Bateson’s play theory. Further analyses were based on those of various ethnic compositions. The qualitative approach was used here. A-Wang preschool (an alias) had three class – mixed-aged teaching, and one of the Xiao-Hua class (an alias) 28 preschools children were selected by purposive sampling in Hualien Country. Besides, children’s activities would not be interfered by researchers. Research data were collected by systematic observation, interviews of participants, children’s work collections, and background information of teachers and children. The Bateson’s play theory and concepts of play signals and metacommunication were applied when reading the research records repeatedly and seeing the key points. Categorization in the final stage was based on the open-coding from the various ethnic compositions as “aboriginal, Han Chinese, and new immigrant”, “Han Chinese, and new immigrant”, “aboriginal, Han Chinese” and “aboriginal and new immigrant”. Results showed the followings: (i) the signals and metacommunication for opening pretend play not only had a difference in the various ethnic compositions but also showed some unlikeness on their expressions. These expressions had the same function to start up the imaginary context effectively, such as clarified and explained for the semiotic system of real environment and the referential behavior of plaything. Finally, the effectively reached consensus for opening imaginary context of pretend play had to understand the meaning of the knowledge and experience for the store and restaurants; (ii) the signals and metacommunication for maintain pretend play had no difference in the various ethnic compositions and expressions. In addition, they let imaginary context be continued effectively by the strategies of clarified, suggested and negotiated. In order to understand the behavior between the imagined context and the real world appeared the illogical experience or status. Finally, the effectively reached consensus for maintain imaginary context of pretend play had to balance in the meaning for the contexts of the realistic restaurant and current the play plot; (iii) the signals and metacommunication for stopping pretend play also had no difference in the various ethnic compositions and expressions. They wanted to keep imaginary context effectively, so they used the strategies of discussion and repair to coordinate the conflicting, events, positions or actions between play roles and the dining experience. Finally, the effectively reached consensus for stopping imaginary context of pretend play had to conform with the meaning of restaurant managed conditions; (iv) the signals and metacommunication for imaginary contexts of opening, maintain and stopping pretend play had no difference in the various ethnic compositions, because they all appeared pause the play role and activities using the true identity to discussing and interpreting the meaning of the behavior.

王文科、王智弘（2010）。質的研究的信度與效度。彰化師大教育學報，17，29-50。
王文科、王智弘（2017）。教育研究法（17版）。臺北市：五南。
江吟梓、蘇文賢（2010）。教育質性研究：實用指南。臺北市：學富。
李素馨、解智鈞、侯錦雄（2007）。蘭嶼兒童之遊戲行為與環境認知。戶外遊憩研究，20（4），27-49。
林天佑（1996）。認識研究倫理。教育資料與研究，12，57-63。
林聖曦（1995）。幼兒對假扮遊戲的啟動與維持之男女比較。論文發表於國立臺東師範學院舉辦之「八十四學年度師範學院教育學術論文發表會」學術研討會，臺東市。
林霓儀、林聖曦（2010）。不同性別組合下的幼兒遊戲初探—室內與戶外遊戲情境之比較。南臺人文社會學報，3，25-61。
金瑞芝（2013）。學前幼兒於不同性別組合同儕遊戲中互動行為之研究。教育研究學報，47（2），127-148。
陳必卿（2018）。從遊戲情境探討幼兒言談特質及其內容。中科大學報，5（1），71-94。
陳必卿、林聖曦（2013）。族群組合及遊戲情境下的幼兒遊戲之初探。環球科技人文學刊，16，33-49。
陳向明（2010）。社會科學質的研究。臺北：五南。
陳淑敏（2002）。幼兒在社會戲劇遊戲中後設溝通語言之運用。行政院國科會專題研究 計畫成果報告。NSC90-2413-H153-008。
陳淑敏（2016）。幼兒遊戲（第3版）。臺北：心理。
黃宗堅（2006）。符號互動論在家人關係研究中之意涵與應用。輔導季刊，42（1），27-34。
黃瑞琴（1992）。幼稚園的遊戲課程。臺北：心理。
黃瑞琴（2008）。質的教育研究方法。臺北：心理。
解智鈞（2006）。達悟族兒童遊戲與環境認知之比較（未出版之碩士論文）。逢甲大學，臺中市。
廖鳳瑞、萊素珠、謝文慧、陳姿蘭、林怡滿、陳欣希（2014）。幼兒發展學習的評量與輔導。臺北：華藤。
廖鳳瑞、陶英琪（2015）。幼兒觀察評量與輔導。臺北：華藤。
歐正峰（2010）。原住民族研究。臺北：翰蘆。
潘淑滿（2003）。質性研究：理論與應用。臺北：心理。
潘慧玲（2003）。社會科學研究典範的流變。教育研究資訊，11（1），115-143。
蔡敏玲（1997年4月）。從雲村泰雅兒童的遊戲經驗再思文化刺激的議題。論文發表於國立新竹師範學院舉辦之「1997年原住民教育」學術研討會，新竹市。
蔡淑苓（2009）。遊戲理論與應用：以幼兒遊戲與幼兒教師教學為例。臺北：五南。
鄭淑貞（2006）。幼兒於戲劇遊戲中之協商內容與策略（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺南大學，臺南市。
盧雯月（2010）。從後設溝通及框架理論的觀點探討想像遊戲與同儕衝突之互動關係。教育心理學報，41（3），635-658。
錡寶香（2012）。兒童語言與溝通發展。臺北：心理。
戴華、甘偵蓉、鄭育萍（2010）。人文社會科學與研究倫理審查：執行研究倫理治理架構計畫的考察與反思。人文與社會科學簡訊，12（1），10-18。
瞿海源、畢恆達、劉長萱、楊國樞（2012）。社會及行為科學研究法（二）：質性研究法。臺北：東華。
簡楚瑛（1993）。學前兒童遊戲行為之發展及其相關因素之研究。國立新竹師範學院學報，6，135-162。
Ahlund, A., & Aronsson, K. (2015). Stylizations and alignments in a L2 classroom: Multiparty work in forming a community of practice. Language & Communication, 43, 11-26.
Ahola, D., & Kovacik, A. (2007). Observing and understanding child development: A child study manual. Australia: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Alvestad, T. (2010). Barnehagens relasjonelle verden-sma barn som kompetente aktorer i produktive forhandlinger. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
Andresen, H. (2005). Role play and language development in the preschool years. Culture Psychology, 11(4), 387-414.
Ary, D., Jacobs. L. C., & Sorensen, C. (2010). Introduction to research in education (8th ed.). California: Wadsworth.
Auwarter, M. (1986). Development of communicative skill. The construction of fictional reality in children’s play. In J. Cook-Gumperz, W. A. Corsaro & J. Streeck (Eds.), Children’s worlds and children’s language (pp. 205-230). New York: Mouton.
Bakhtin, M. (1981). The dialogic imagination. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Ball, M., & Smith, G. (1992). Analyzing visual data (Qualitative Research Methods). California: Sage Publications Inc.
Barbu, S., Cabanes, G., Le Maner-Idrissi, G. (2011). Boys and girls on the playground: Sex differences in social development are not stable across early childhood. Plos one, 6(1): e16407. https://doi.org/10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0016407
Barker, C., & Galasinski, D. (2001). Cultural studies and discourse analysis: A dialogue on language and identity. London: Sage Publications.
Barron, I. (2011). The shadows of difference: ethnicity and young children’s friendships. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 14(5), 655-673.
Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an ecology of mind. New York: Ballantine Books.
Bayeck, R. Y. (2017). A review of five African board games: is there any educational potential? Cambridge Journal of Education, 1, 1-20.
Berger, H., DelNegro, G., (2002). Bauman’s verbal art and the social organization of attention: the role of reflexivity in the aesthetics of performance. Journal of American Folklore, 115(455), 62-91.
Bergen, D. (2002). The role of pretend play in children’s cognitive development. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1), 1-13.
Bergen, D. (2013). Does pretend play matter? Searching for evidence: Comment on Lillard et al. (2013). Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 45-48.
Blackstock, C., & Trocme, N. (2005). Community-based child welfare for aboriginal children: Supporting resilience through structural change. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 24(12), 12-33.
Blum-Kulka, S., Huck-Taglicht, D., & Avni, H. (2004). The social and discursive spectrum of peer talk. Discourse Studies, 6(3), 307-328.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. (2007). Play and early literacy: A Vygotskian approach. In K. A. Roskos & J. F. Christie (Eds.), Play and literacy in early childhood (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Bower, A. B. (2009). Ethnic comparisons of children’s play behaviors: An observational study among the Pimbwe and Sukuma people of Kibaoni, western tanzania. Unpublished master thesis, University of California, Davis, CA.
Branco, A. U. (2005). Peer interaction, language, development and metacommunication. Culture & Psychology, 11(4), 415-429.
Branco, A. U., Pessina, L., Flores, A., & Salomao, S. (2004). A sociocultural constructivist approach to metacommunication in child development. In A. U. Branco & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Communication and metacommuni-cation in human development (pp. 3-32). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
Branco, A. U., & Valsiner, J. (2005). Communication and metacommuni-cation in human development. Greenwich, Conn: Information Age.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Bretherton, I. (1989). Pretense: The form and function of make-believe play. Development Review, 9(4), 383-401.
Brooker, L., Blaise, M., & Edwards, S. (2014). The SAGE handbook of play and learning in early childhood. Los Angeles: SAGE Reference.
Brostroem, S. (1997). Children’s play: Tools and symbols in frame play. Early Years: An International Research Journal, 17(2), 16-21.
Brownell, C. A. (1990). Peer social skills in toddlers: Competencies and constraints illustrated by same-age and mixed-age interaction. Child Development, 61(3), 838-848.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.
Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2008). Symbolic thought. In M. M. Haith, & J. B. Benson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of infant and early childhood development, Vol. 3 (pp. 288-297). London: Elsevier.
Carlson, S. M., & White, R. E. (2013). Executive function, pretend play, and imagination. In M. Taylor (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination (pp. 161-174). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Carr, V., & Luken, E. (2014). Playscapes: A pedagogical paradigm for play and learning. International Journal of Play, 3(1), 69-83.
Case-Smith, J. (2005). Occupational therapy for children (5th ed.). St Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Casey, S., Stagnitti, K., Taket, A., & Nolan, A. (2012). Early peer play interactions of resilient children living in disadvantaged communities. International Journal of Play, 1(3), 311-323.
Cassell, J., & Wax, M. L. (1980). Toward a moral science of human beings. Social Problems, 27(3), 251-264.
Cekaite, A., & Evaldssonu, A.-C. (2017). Stance and footing in multilingual play: Rescaling practices and heritage language use in a Swedish preschool. Journal of Pragmatics (in press).
Charon, J. M. (2010). Symbolic interactionism: An introduction, an interpretation, an integration. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.
Chessa, D., Lis, A., Riso, D., Delvecchio, E., Mazzeschi, C., Russ, S., & Dillon, J. (2013). A cross-cultural comparison of pretend play in U.S. and Italian children. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(4), 640-656.
Chisholm, V., & Pitcairn, T. (1998). The communication of differential relationships in preschool children: Preference and social theme. Social Development, 7(2), 164-181.
Christakis, D. A., Zimmerman, F. J., & Garrison, M. M. (2007). Effect of block play on language acquisition and attention in toddlers: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161(10), 967-971.
Cohen, L. E., & J. Uhry. (2007). Young children’s discourse strategies during pretend block play: A Bakhtinian approach. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(3), 302-315.
Cooper, C. R. (1980). Development of collaborative problem solving among preschool children. Development Psychology, 16(5), 433-440.
Corsaro, W. (1986). Discourse processes within peer culture: From a constructivist to an interpretative approach to childhood socialization. In P. Adler (Ed.), Sociological studies in child development (pp. 81-101). New York: JAI.
Corsaro, W. A. (1993). Interpretive reproduction in children’s role play. Childhood, 1(2), 64-74.
Corsaro, W. A. (1997). The sociology of childhood. Thousand Oaks, CA; Pine Forge Press.
Corsaro, W. A. (2003). We’re friends, right? Inside kids’ culture. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
Crabbe, L. (2007). Keeping a family together. In M. T. Morgan & B. Kwaymullina (Eds.), In speaking from the heart: Stories of life, family and country (pp. 25-38). Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Mosher, M. (1997). Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 579-587.
De Haan, D., & Singer, E. (2001). Young children’s language of togetherness. International Journal of Early Years Education, 9(2), 117-124.
De Vito, J. (2000). Human Communication. New York: Longman.
deMarrais, K., Nelson, P. A., & Baker, J. H. (1992). Meaning in mud: Young Eskimo girls at play. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 23(2), 120-144.
Demiray, U. (2010). Meta communication for knowledge building process in distance education from point of meta cognitive structural collaborated model. In Yuzer, T., & Kurubacak, G. (Eds.), Transformative Learning and Online Education: Aesthetics (pp. 65-88). Dimensions and Concepts.
Doyle, A. B., & Connolly, J. (1989). Negotiation and enactment in social pretend play: Relations to social acceptance and social cognition. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 4(3), 289-302.
Doyle, A. B. Doehring, P., Tessier, O., & de Lorimier, S., & Shapiro, S. (1992). Transitions in children’s play: A sequential analysis of states preceding and following social pretense. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 137-144.
Duranti, A., Black, S. (2012). Language socialization and verbal improvisation. In A. Duranti E. Ochs & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.), The Handbook of Language Socialization (pp. 443-463). Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, NJ.
Dyson, A. H. (2003). The brothers and sisters learn to write: Popular literacies in childhood and school culture. New York: Teachers College Press.
Efron, D. (1941). Gesture and environment: A tentative study of some of the spatio-temporal and linguistic aspects of the gestural behavior of eastern Jews and southern Italians in New York City, living under similar as well as different environmental conditions. New York: King’s Crown Press.
Engdahl, I. (2011). Toddler interaction during play in the Swedish preschool. Early Child Development and Care, 181(10), 1421-1439.
Entz, S., & Galarza, S. L. (2000). Picture this: Digital and instant photography activities for early childhood learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2003). Young children’s play qualities in same-, other-, and mixes-sex peer groups. Child Development, 74(3), 921-932.
Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., & Martin, C. L. (2003). Children at play: the role of peers in understanding the effects of the care. Child Development, 74(4), 1039-1043.
Farver, I. M. (1993). Cultural differences in scaffolding pretend play: A comparison of American and Mexican mother-child and sibling-child pairs. In K. MacDonald (Ed.), Parent-child play: Descriptions and implications (pp. 349-366). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Farver, J. A. M., Kim, Y. K., & Lee, Y. (1995). Cultural differences in Korean-and Anglo-American preschoolers’ social interaction and play behaviors. Child Development, 66(4), 1088-1099.
Fein, G. G., & Glaubman, R. (1993). Commentary. Human Development, 36, 247-252.
Fein, G. G., Moorin, E. R., & Enslein, J. (1982). Pretense and peer behavior: An intersectoral analysis. Human Development, 25(6), 392-406.
Feldman, C. F. (1986). The “old” pragmatics and the “new” Afterthoughts on a revolution. Journal of Pragmatics, 10(4), 405-413.
Flaherty, S. C., & Sadler, L. S. (2011). A review of attachment theory in the context of adolescent parenting. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 25 (2), 114-121.
Fogel, A. (1993). Developing through relationships. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Fogel, A., & Branco A. U. (1997). Metacommunication as a source of indeterminism in relationship development. In A. Fogel, M. C. Lyra, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Dynamics and indeterminism in developmental and social processes (pp. 65-92). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Friesen, J., Arifovic, J., Wright, S. C., Ludwig, A., Giamo, L., & Baray, G. (2012). Ethnic identity and discrimination among children. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(6), 1156-1169.
Frost, J., Wortham, S., & Reifel, S. (2012). Play and child development (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Galyer, K. T., & Evans, I. M. (2001). Pretend play and the development of emotion regulation in preschool children. Early Child Development and Care, 166(1), 93-108.
Garvey, C. (1984). Children’s talk. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Garvey, C. (1990). Play. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Garvey, C. (1993). Diversity in the conversational repertoire: The case of conflicts and social pretending. Cognition and Instruction, 11(3-4), 251-264.
Garvey, C., & Berndt, R. (1977). The organization of pretend play. Ote Madera, CA: Select Press.
Garvey, C., & Kramer, T. L. (1989). The language of social pretend play. Developmental Review, 9(4), 364-382.
Gaskins, S., & Miller, P. J. (2009). The cultural roles of emotions in pretend play. In C. Dell Clark (Ed.), Transactions at play: Play and cultural studies (pp. 5-21). Lanham, MD: University Press of Africa.
Gaskins, S. (2000). Children’s daily activities in a Mayan village: A culturally grounded description. Journal of Cross-Cultural Research, 34(4), 375-389.
Gaskins, S. (2013). Pretend play as culturally constructed activity. In M. Taylor (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination (pp. 224-247). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. W. (2009). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Culture. New York: Basic Books.
Genishi, C., Yung-Chan, D., & Stires, S. (2000). Talking their way into print: English language learners in a pre-kindergarten classroom. ln D. S. Strickland & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Beginning reading and writing (pp. 66-80). New York: Teachers College Press.
Giffin, H. L. N. (1982). The metacommunicative processes in collective make-believe play. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Colorado.
Giffin H. L. N. (1984). The co-ordination of meaning in the creation of shared make-believe reality. In I. Bretherton (Ed.), Symbolic play: The development of social understanding (pp. 73-100). New York: Academic.
Ginsburg, K. R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 119(1), 182-191.
Giri, V. N. (2006). Culture and communication style. The Review of Communication, 6(1-2), 124-130.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative research. White Plains: Longman.
Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis. Lebanon, NH: Northeastern University Press.
Goffman, E. (1981). Footing. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Goldman, L. R. (1998). Child’s play: Myth, mimesis, and make-believe. New York: Oxford University Press.
Goldstein, J. (2012). Play in children’s development, health and well-being. Brussels: Toy Industries of Europe.
Goncu, A. (1993). Development of intersubjectivity in social pretend play. Human Development, 36(4), 185-198.
Goncu, A., & Kessel, F. (1988). Preschoolers’ collaborative construction in planning and maintaining imaginative play. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(3), 327-344.
Goncu, A., Mistry, J., & Mosier, C. (2000). Cultural variations in the play toddlers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(3), 321-329.
Goncu, A., Patt, M., & Kouba, E. (2004). Understanding young children’s pretend play in context. In P. Smith (Ed.), Handbook of childhood social development (pp. 418-437). London: Blackwell.
Goodwin, M. H. (2006). The hidden life of girls: Games of stance, status, and exclusion. Blackwell, Oxford.
Gosso, Y., Morais, M. L. S., & Otta, E. (2007). Pretend play of Brazilian children: A window into different cultural worlds. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38(5), 539-558.
Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (2012). Researching children’s experience: Methods and approaches. London: SAGE.
Gregory, E., Long, S., & Volk, D. (2004). Many pathways to literacy: Young children learning with siblings, grandparents, peers and communities. Routledge.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (1992). Communicating with strangers. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Haagen, C. (1994). Bush toys: Aboriginal children at play. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
Haight, W. L., Wang, X., Fung, H. H., Williams, K., & Mintz, J. (1999). Universal, developmental, and variable aspects of young children’s play: A cross-cultural comparison of pretending at home. Child Development, 70(6), 1477-1488.
Halliday-Scher, K., Urberg, K. A., & Kaplan-Estrin, M. (1995). Learning to pretend: Preschoolers’ use of meta-communication in sociodramatic play. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 18(3), 451-461.
Hamo, M., Blum-Kulka, S., & Hacohen, G. (2004). From observation to transcription and back: Theory, practice, and interpretation in the analysis of children’s naturally occurring discourse. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 37(1), 71-92.
Han, M., Moore, N., Vukelich, C., & Buell, M. (2010). Does play make a difference? How play intervention affects the vocabulary learning of atrisk preschoolers. American Journal of Play, 3(1), 82-105.
Harper, D. (1994). On the authority of the image: Visual methods at the crossroads. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 403-412). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Hartwell-Walker, M. (2018). Meta-communication: What I said isn’t what I meant. Psych Central. Retrieved on July 18, 2019, from https://psych-central.com/lib/meta-communication-what-i-said-isnt-what-i-meant/
Hill, M. (2006). Children’s voices on ways of having a voice: Children’s and young people’s perspectives on methods used in research and consultation. Childhood, 13(69), 69-89.
Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Berk, L. E., & Singer, D. G. (2009). A mandate of playful learning in preschool: Presenting the evidence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Holmes, R. M., Pellegrini, A. D., & Schmidt, S. L. (2006). The effects of different recess timing regimens on preschoolers’ classroom attention. Early Child Development and Care, 176(7), 735-743.
Holmes, R. M., & Romeo, L. (2013). Gender, play, language, and creativity in preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 183(11), 1531-1543.
Howard, K. M. (2009). Breaking in and spinning out: Repetition and decalibration in Thai children’s play genres. Language in Society, 38(3), 339-363.
Howe, N. Petrakos, H., & Rinaldi, C. M. (1998). “All the sheeps are dead. He murdered them”: Sibling pretense, negotiation, internal state language, and relationship quality. Child Development, 69(1), 182-191.
Howe, N., Petrakos, H., Rinaldi, C. M., & LeFebvre, R. (2005). “This is a bad dog, you know...”: Constructing shared meanings during sibling pretend play. Child Development, 76(4), 783-794.
Howes, C., Guerra, A. W., Fuligni, A., Zucker, E., Lee, L., Obregon, N. B., & Spivak, A. (2011). Classroom dimensions predict early peer interaction when children are diverse in ethnicity, race, and home language. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(4), 399-408.
Howes, C., & Matheson, C. C. (1992). Sequences in the development of competent play with peers: Social and social pretend play. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 961-974.
Howes, C., Unger, O., & Matheson, C. C. (1992). The collaborative construction of pretend: Social pretend play functions. New York: State University of New York Press.
Hughes, F. P. (2010). Children, play and development. Los Angeles, Calif: Sage Publications.
Huizinga, J. (1950). Homo ludens: A study of the play element in culture. New York: Roy.
Hymes, D. H. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Ilgaz, H., & Aksu-Koc, A. (2005). Episodic development in preschool children’s play-prompted and direct-elicited narratives. Cognitive Development, 20(4), 526-544.
Ioannidou, E. (2017). Performing registers and registering performance: Young children’s linguistic practices during play in the Greek Cypriot context. Language & communication, 56, 55-68.
Istifci, I., & Demiray, U. (2011). Role and function of meta-communication concept as non-verbal communication for teaching English as a foreign language. International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, 2(4), 96-111.
Jarrold, C., Carruthers, P., Smith, P. K., & Boucher, J. (1994). Pretend play: Is it metarepresentational? Mind & Languages, 9(4), 445-468.
Jing, M., & Li, H. (2015). Effect of partner’s gender on early pretend play: A preliminary study of Singapore Chinese preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 185(8), 1216-1237.
Johansson, E., & Samuelsson, I. P. (2007). Att leka ar nastan som att lara. Lek och larande i forskola och skola. Stockholm: Liber.
Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Johnson, J. E., Christie, J. F., & Yawkey, T. D. (1999). Play and early child-hood development. New York: Longman.
Kalliala, M. (2002). Angelprincess and suicide on the playground slide. The culture of play and societal change. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 10(1), 7-28.
Karpov, Y. V. (2005). The Neo-Vygotskian approach to child development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Keenan, E., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1983). Topic as a discourse notion: A study of topic in the conversations of children and adults. In E. Ochs & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.), Acquiring conversational competence (pp. 66-113). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Klein, T. P., Wirth, D., & Linas, K. (2003). Play: Children’s context for development. Young Children, 58(3), 38-45.
Kyratzis, A., Tang, Y. T., & Koymen, S. B. (2009). Codes, code-switching, and context: Style and footing in peer group bilingual play. Multilingua: Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication, 28(2-3), 265-290.
Labov, W. (1969). Contraction, deletion, and inherent variability of the English copula. Language, 45(4), 715-762.
Lancy, D. F. (2002). Cultural constraints on children’s play. In J. Roopnarine (Ed.), Conceptual, social-cognitive, and contextual issues in the fields of play. Play & Culture Studies, Vol. 4 (pp. 53-62). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.
Lancy, D. F. (2007) Accounting for variability in mother-child play. American Anthropologist, 109(2), 273-284.
Lareau, A. (2000). Social class and the daily lives of children: A study from the United States. Childhood, 7(2), 155-171.
Leach, J., Howe, N., & Dehart, G. (2015). “An earthquake shocked up the land!”: Children’s communication during play with siblings and friends. Social Development, 24(1), 95-112.
Leaper, C. (1991). Influence and involvement in children’s discourse: Age, gender, and partner effects. Child Development, 62(4), 797-811.
Leiter, R. G., (1980). Leiter international performance scale. Chicago: Stoelting.
Leong, F. T. (1993). The career counseling process with racial‐ethnic minorities: The case of Asian Americans. The Career Development Quarterly, 42(1), 26-40.
Lester, S., & Russell, W. (2010). Children's Right to Play: An Examination of the Importance of Play in the Lives of Children Worldwide. Working Papers in Early Childhood Development, No. 57. Bernard van Leer Foundation (NJ1).
Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, V., Boucher, J., Lupton, L., & Watson, S. (2000). Relationships between symbolic play, functional play, verbal and non-verbal ability in young children. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 35(1), 117-127.
Lillard, A. S. (1993). Pretend play skills and the child’s theory of mind. Child Development, 64(2), 348.
Lillard, A. S., Lerner, M. D., Hopkins, E. J., Dore, R. A., Smith, E. D., & Palmquist, C. M. (2013). The impact of pretend play on children’s development: A review of the evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 1-34.
Lin, S.-H., & Reifel, S. (1999). Context and meanings in Taiwanese kindergarten play. In S. Reifel (Ed.), Play & Cultures Studies: Vol. 2. Play contexts revisited (Vol. 2, pp. 151-176). Stamford, CT: Ablex.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lokken, G. (2000). Tracing the social style of toddler peers. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44(2), 163-176.
Lowe, M., & Costello, A. J. (1988). Symbolic play test, 2nd. Windsor: NFER-Nelson.
Lyytinen, P., Laakso, M.-L., Poikkeus, A.-M., & Rita, N. (1999). The development and predictive relations of play and language across the second year. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 177-186.
Mandal, F. B. (2014). Nonverbal communication in humans. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 24(4), 417-421.
Marsh, K., & Marsh, K. M. (2008). The musical playground: Global tradition and change in children’s songs and games. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
Martini, M. (1994). Peer interactions in Polynesia: A view from the Marquesas. In J. L., Roopnarine, J. E., Johnson & F. H. Hooper (Eds.), Children’s play in diverse cultures (pp. 73-103). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Masur, E. F. (1978). Preschool boy’ speech modifications: The effect of listeners’ linguistic levels and conversational responsiveness. Child Development, 49(3), 924-927.
Matsumoto, D. (2001). The handbook on culture and psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
May, W. F. (1980). Doing ethics: The bearing of ethical theories on fieldwork. Social Problems, 27(3), 358-370.
May, S. (2001) Language and minority rights: Ethnicity, nationalism and the politics of language. London: Longman.
Maybin, J., & Swann, J. (2007). Everyday creativity in language: textuality, contextuality, and critique. Applied Linguistics, 28(4), 497-517.
McLoyd, V. C. (1980). Verbally expressed modes of transformation in the fantasy play of black preschool children. Child Development, 51(4), 1133-1139.
McLoyd, V. C., Warren, D., & Thomas, E. A. C. (1984). Anticipatory and fantastic role enactment in preschool triads. Development Psychology, 20(5), 807-814.
McQuail, D. (2010). Mass communication theory (6th ed.). London: Sage Publications.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. From the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mercer, N., & Littleton, K. (2007). Dialogue and the development of children’s thinking: A sociocultural approach. London: Routledge.
Mendelson, M. J., Aboud, F. E., & Lanthier, R. P. (1994). Personality predictors of friendship and popularity in kindergarten. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(3), 113-135.
Mihaela, P. L. (2013). Play in school context. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 76, 597-601.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. Los Angeles: Sage.
Miller, S. (1973). Ends, means, and galumphing: Some leitmotifs of play. American Anthropology, 75(1), 87-98.
Miller, P. M., Danaher, D. L., & Forbes, D. (1986). Sex-related strategies for coping with interpersonal conflict in children aged five and seven. Developmental Psychology, 22(4), 543-548.
Mills, G. E. (2010). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Mitchell, R. W. (1991). Bateson’s concept of “metacommunication” in play. New Ideas in Psychology, 9(1), 73-87.
Mutema, F. (2013). Shona traditional children’s games and songs as a form of indigenous knowledge: An endangered genre. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 15(3), 59-64.
Nelson, K. (2010). Young minds in social worlds: Experience, meaning and memory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Newton, E., & Jenvey, V. (2011). Play and theory of mind: Associations with social competence in young children. Early Child Development and Care, 181(6), 761-773.
Nicholson, J., Kurnik, J., Jevgjovikj, M., & Ufoegbune, V. (2015). Deconstructing adults’ and children’s discourse on children’s play: listening to children’s voices to destabilise deficit narratives. Early Child Development and Care, 185(10), 1569-1586.
Nicolopoulou, N. (2005). Play and narrative in the process of development: Commonalities, differences, and interrelations. Cognitive Development, 20, 495-502.
Nicolopoulou, A., & Ilgaz, H. (2013). What do we know about pretend play and narrative development?: A response to Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith, and Palmquist on “The impact of pretend play on child-ren’s development: A review of the evidence.” American Journal of Play [Special Issue], 6(1), 55-80.
Nkopodi, N., & Mosimege, M. (2009). Incorporating the indigenous game of morabaraba in the learning of mathematics. South African Journal of Education, 29(3), 377-392.
Nwokah, E. E., & Ikekeonwu, C. (1998). A sociocultural comparison of Nigerian and American Children’s games. In M. C. Duncan, G. Chick, & A. Aycock (Eds.), Diversions and divergences in fields of play: Play and Culture Studies, Vol. 1 (pp. 59-76). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.
Ontario. Ministry of Education. (2010). The full-day early learning kindergarten program: Draft version. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario.
Ostrov, J. M., & Keating, C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13(2), 255-277.
Owocki, G. (1999). Literacy through play. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Palmadottir, H., & Einarsdottir, J. (2012). Yngstu leikskolabornin: Samfelag i leik. Icelandic Journal of Education/Uppeldi og Menntun, 21(2), 43-69.
Palmadottir, H., & Johansson, E. M. (2015). Young children’s communication and expression of values during play sessions in preschool. Early Years, 35(3), 289-302.
Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among preschool children. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27(3), 243-269.
Paugh, A. L. (2014). Playing with languages: Children and change in a Caribbean village. New York: Berghahn Books.
Pellegrini, A. D. (2009). The role of play in human development. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pellegrini, A. D., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2004). The ontogeny and phylogeny of children’s object and fantasy play. Human Nature, 15(1), 23-43.
Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.
Prioletta, J., & Pyle, A. (2017). Play and gender in Ontario kindergarten classrooms: implications for literacy learning. International Journal of Early Years Education, 25(4), 393-408.
Quay, L. C., & Pinkett, K. E. L. (1986). Ethnic and social class comparisons of preschoolers’ verbal and nonverbal communication in object-center-ed and object-free play. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 147(3), 427-429.
Rampton, B. (2018). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Reynolds, J. F. (2003, June). Play imitating life imitating play: Antonero children’s performances of El Desafio (the challenge) as El Rey Moro (the Moorish King). Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Meeting of the Jean Piaget Society, Chicago, IL.
Rogers, C. S., & Sawyers, J. K. (2003). Play in the lives of children. Winnipeg: Manitoba Education and Training.
Roopnarine, J. L. (2012). What is the state of play? International Journal of Play, 1(3), 228-230.
Roopnarine, J. L., Johnson, J. E., & Hooper, F. H. (1994). Children’s play in diverse cultures. New York: State University of New York Press.
Rubin, K. H., Fein, G. G., & Vandenberg, B. (1983). Play. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 693-774). NY: Wiley.
Rydland, V. (2009). Whow—when I was going to pretend drinking it tasted coke for real! Second-language learners’ out-of-frame talk in peer pretend play: A developmental study from preschool to first grade. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6(2), 190-222.
Sameroff, A. (2013, June). The social context of early intervention: A unified theory of development. Paper presented at the Conference of the International Society on Early Intervention (ISEI), St. Petersburg, Russian Federation.
Sawyer, R. K. (1996). Role voicing, gender, and age in preschool play discourse. Discourse Processes, 22(3), 289-307.
Sawyer, R. K. (1997). Pretend play as improvisation: Conversation in the preschool classroom. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sawyer, R. K. (2003). Levels of analysis in pretend play discourse: Metacommunication in conversational routine. In D. Lytle (Ed.), Play and educational theory and practice (pp. 137-157). Westport, CT: Prager.
Sayeed, Z., & Guerin, E. (2000). Early years play: A happy medium for assessment and intervention. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Schwartz, G. E. (2008). The energy healing experiments: Science reveals our natural power to heal. Simon and Schuster.
Schwartzman, H. (1978). Transformations: The anthropology of children’s play. New York: Plenum.
Seefeldt, C., & Barbour, N. (1998). Early childhood education: An introduction. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice-Hall.
Sheldon, A. (1996). You can be the baby brother, but you aren’t born yet. Preschool girls’ negotiations for power and access in pretend play. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 29(1), 57-80.
Shi, -X. (2009). A cultural approach to discourse. England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sieber, J. E. (1992). Planning ethically responsive research. Newbury Park: Sage.
Singer, D. G., Singer, J. L., D’Agnostino, H., & DeLong, R. (2009). Children’s pastimes and play in sixteen nations: Is free-play declining? American Journal of Play, 1(3), 283-312.
Smilansky, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic play on disadvantaged preschool children. New York: Wiley.
Smilansky, S. (1990). Sociodramatic play: Its relevance to behavior and achievement in school. In E. Klugman & S. Smilansky (Eds.), Children’s play and learning (pp. 18-42). New York: Teacher’s College.
Smilansky, S., & Shefatya, L. (1990). Facilitating play: A medium for prom-oting cognitive, socioemotional and academic development in young children. Gaithersburg, MD: Psychosocial and Educational Publications.
Smith, P. K. (2010). Children and play. New York: NY: J. Wiley.
Spradly, J. P., & McCurdy, D. W. (1988). The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society. Chicago: Science Research Associates.
Stude, J. (2014). The acquisition of discourse competence: Evidence from preschoolers’ peer talk. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 3(2), 111-120.
Suito, N., & Reifel, S. (1993). Aspect of gender role in American and Japanese play. Journal of Play Theory and Research, 1, 26-54.
Sutton-Smith, B. (1979). Epilogue: Play as performance. In B. Sutton-Smith (Ed.), Play and learning (pp. 295-322). New York: Gardner Press.
Sutton-Smith, B. (1986). Toys as culture. New York: Gardner Press.
Swick, K. J. (1987). Readings on multicultural learning in early childhood education. Little Rock, AR: Southern Association on Children Under Six. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 309863)
Tatira, L. (2014). Traditional games of Shona children. Journal of Pan African Studies, 7(4), 156-175.
Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1984). Introduction to qualitative research methods: The search for meanings. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Trawick-Smith, J. (1998). A qualitative analysis of metaplay in the preschool years. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(3), 433-452.
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism collectivism: Cross-cultural studies on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 323-338.
Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture. London: The Economist Books.
Tsao, L. L. (2002). How much do we know about the importance of play in child development? Review of research. Childhood Education, 78 (4), 230-233.
Tudge, J. (2008). The everyday lives of young children. Culture, class, and child rearing in diverse societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Turner, V. (1977). Process, system, and symbol: A new anthropological synthesis. Daedalus, 106(3), 61-80
United Nations. (2009). General comment no. 12 (2009): The right of the child to be heard. Geneva: United Nations.
Uren, N., & Stagnitti, K. (2009). Pretend play, social competence and involvement in children aged 5-7 years: The concurrent validity of the child-initiated pretend play assessment. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 56(1), 33-40.
Van Hoorn, J., Nourot, P., Scales, B., & Alward, K. (1993). Play at the center of the curriculum. New York, NY: Merrill/Macmillan
Van Kleeck, A., & Hopper, R. (1980, November). Metacommunicative development. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Speech Communication Association, 66th, New York.
Vida, D. M., & Maurer, D. (2013). I see what you’re saying: Voice signals influence children’s judgments of direct and avert gaze. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116(3), 609-624
Volk, D., & de Acosta, M. (2001). Many differing ladders, many ways to climb: Literacy events in the bilingual classroom, homes, and community of three Puerto Rican kindergartners. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 1(2), 193-224.
Vriens-van Hoogdalem, A. G., de Haan, D. M., & Boom, J. (2016). The role of language ability in young children’s cooperation during play and collaborative interactions. Early Child Development and Care, 186(9), 1491-1504.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2004). Tool and sign in the development of the child. In R. W. Rieber & D. K. Robinson (Eds.), The essential Vygotsky (pp. 513-569). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2016). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. International Research in Early Childhood Education, 7(2), 3-25.
Wardle, F. (2003). Introduction to early childhood education: A multidimensional approach to child-centered care and learning. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Watson-Gegeo, K. A. (2001). Fantasy and reality: The dialectic of work and play in Kwara' ae children’s lives. Ethos, 29(2), 138-158.
Weiss, A. L. (2004). Why we should consider pragmatics when planning treatment for children who stutter. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 35(1), 34-45.
Wells, C. G. (2009). The meaning makers: Learning to talk and talking to learn. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
West, G, & Zimmerman, D. H. (1985). Gender, language, and discourse. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Handbook of discourse analysis: Vol. 4. Discourse analysis in society (pp. 103-124). London: Academic Press.
Westman, G. (2003). Lek och kommunikation [Play and communication]. Forskoletidningen, 1, 11-17.
Whitebread, D., & O’Sullivan, L. (2012). Preschool children’s social pretend play: supporting the development of metacommunication, metacogni-tion and self-regulation. International Journal of Play, 1(2), 197-213.
Whitmore, K. F., Martens, P., Goodman, Y., & Owocki, G. (2005). Remembering critical lessons in early literacy research: A transactional perspective. Language Arts, 82(5), 296-307.
Whittington, V., & Floyd, I. (2009). Creating intersubjectivity during sociodramatic play at an Australian kindergarten. Early Child Development and Care, 179(2), 143-156.
Wortham, S. (2008). Linguistic anthropology. In B. Spolsky & E. M. Hult (Eds.), The handbook of educational linguistics (pp. 83-95). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Yates, T. M., & Marcelo, A. K. (2014). Through race-colored glasses: Preschoolers’ pretend play and teachers’ ratings of preschooler adjustment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(1), 1-11.
Yeatman, J., & Reifel, S. (1992). Sibling play and learning. Play and Culture, 5(2), 141-158.
Zhang, Y. (2002). Analysis of the social gender culture in children’s games. Chinese Education & Society, 35(5), 77-91.