本論文旨在探討華語學習者與華語實習教師在線上互動過程中，糾錯回饋(corrective feedback)對二語習得的關係。本研究從兩個面向討論此問題，一、糾錯回饋如何影響學習者對於目標語言形式的注意(noticing)與修復(repair)，二、周邊語言特色(paralinguistic features)，如，語調、手勢、臉部表情等，如何影響學習者與教師雙方互動，與糾錯回饋的關係為何。
過去的互動研究場景多為實驗室或課堂教學，為了提供多元研究資料，本論文研究題材為捷克馬薩里克大學的華語學習者與國立臺灣師範大學華語文教學研究所碩士生的線上互動課程。研究者將線上互動課程影片轉寫為逐字稿，並應用言談分析檢視教學內容。言談分析打破傳統文本分類框架，同時記錄互動中口語及非口語訊息，適用於線上互動文本分析，符合研究目的。
本論文採用Lyster 及Ranta 2007年研究中六種糾錯回饋類型，直接糾錯、重述、澄清性提問、後設語言回饋、引出以及重複學生錯誤。研究結果顯示，線上互動中，糾錯回饋類型以重述及澄清性提問為多數。以言談分析方法觀察互動後發現，華語實習教師提供糾錯回饋時，通常搭配語調、手勢、臉部表情等周邊語言特徵，引起學習者對目標語言形式的注意與修復。同樣地，學習者亦透過手勢、臉部表情傳達溝通意願，提問或者與教師持續互動。此外，從逐字稿分析中觀察到，當學習者注意到糾錯回饋的當下，即使沒立即修復，卻能在後續的話輪中，產出接近或完全正確的目標語言形式，顯示持續互動的延遲效果(delayed effects)。

The aim of this research is to examine the relationship between corrective feedback and second language acquisition in online interaction between Chinese learners and teachers. From the two perspectives, this study investigates (1) how corrective feedback affects second language learning, and (2) if paralinguistic features, (e.g. intonation, hand gestures, facial expressions) have an influence on the teacher-learner interaction.
Interactive studies have been usually conducted in laboratories or classrooms. Different from the past, the data of the current study were online interaction between Chinese learners at Masaryk University in Czech Republic and graduate students in graduate institute of Chinese as a Second Language in National Taiwan Normal University. The researcher transcribed the videotapes of the online interactions with conversational analysis. In terms of conversational analysis, verbal and nonverbal elements are recorded, presenting details of interactional moves between learners and teachers.
The six types of corrective feedback adopted in the current study are explicit correction, recast, clarification request, metalinguistic feedback, elicitation, and repetition (Lyster and Ranta, 2007). The results suggested that recasts and clarification request were the two most frequently used types of corrective feedback. The data also showed that teachers employed paralinguistic features with provision of corrective feedback to prompt learners to notice the feedback and produce modification. Meanwhile, learners’ responses involved with paralinguistic features assisted themselves to reformulate, clarify themselves, or make a request. One more finding presented that although learners did not immediately modify their utterance while noticing the feedback, they yielded modification in subsequent turns, thus providing evidence of delayed effects resulting from interaction.

黃雅秋 (2008)。初級華語課堂教師進行語言篇誤改正教學方式之個案研究。台北市︰
國立師範大學碩士論文(未出版)。
林秋翠 (2009)。從華語課堂師生觀點探討偏誤改正。台北市︰國立師範大學碩士論文
(未出版)。
Allen, L. Q. (2000). Nonverbal accommodations in foreign language teacher talk. Applied Language Learning, 11, 155-176.
Al-Surmi, M. (2012). Learners’ noticing of recasts of morpho-syntactic errors: Recast types and delayed recognition. System 40, 226-236
Andersen, P. A., Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions 36, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999.
Bergsleithner, J. M., Frota, S. N. & Yoshioka, J. K. (2013). Noticing and second language acquisition: studies in honor of Richard Schmidt. Manoa: National Foreign Language Resource Center
Brandon, Lee E. & Brandon, K. (c2011) Sentences, paragraphs and beyond: with integrated readings. Boston, Mass.: Wadsworth.
Bowles, M. A. (2010). The Think-Aloud Controversy in Language Acquisition Research. New York, NY: Routledge.
Carroll, S. & Swain, M. (1993). Explicit and implicit negative feedback: An empirical study of the learning of linguistic generalizations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15, 357-386.
Chao, Y.- R. (1930). A System of Tone Letters. La Maître phonétique, 45, 24-27.
Chamberlin-Quinlisk, C. (2008). Nonverbal communication and second language classrooms: A review. In McCafferty, S. G. & Stam, G. (Eds.). Gesture: Second language acquisition and classroom research, 25-45. London: Routledge.
Chaudron, C. (1977). A descriptive model of discourse in the corrective
treatment of learners’ errors. Language Learning 27, 29-46.
Chaudron, C. (1988). Second language classrooms: research on teaching and learning. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press.
Choi, M-Y. (2000). Effects of Recasts on Irregular Past Tense Verb Morphology in Web-Chat. Unpublished MA thesis. University of Hawai’i.
Crystal, D. (1975). The body as a medium of expression. London: Institute of Contemporary Arts.
De Jong, Nivja H., Steinel, Margarita P., Florijn, Arjen F., Schoonen, R. & Hulstijn, Jan H. (2012). Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 34, 5-34.
Dlaska, A. & Krekeler, C. (2013). The short-term effects of individual corrective feedback on L2 pronunciation. System 41, 25-37.
Doughty, C. (2001). The cognitive underpinnings of focus on form in P. Robinson (ed.). Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Doughty, C. and Varela, E. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In Doughty, c. and Williams, J. (eds.). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Egi, T. (2007). Interpreting recasts as linguistic evidence: The role of linguistic target, length, and degree of change. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29. 511-538.
Eli. H. (1999). Culture in second language teaching and learning. Cambridge, U.K.; New York: Cambridge University Press
Ellis, R. (1985). Teacher-pupil interaction in second language development. In Gass, S. & Madden, C. eds. Input in second language acquisition, 69-85. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press
Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H. & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons. Language Learning 51, 281-318.
Ellis, R. (2010). Epilogue: A framework for investigating oral and written corrective feedback. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32, 335-349.
Ellis, R. (2012). Language Teaching Research and Language Pedagogy. London: Wiley-Blackwell.
Ellis, R. (2013). Corrective feedback in teacher guides and SLA. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research 1(3), 1-18.
Ellis, R. & He, X. (1999). The roles of modified input and output in incidental acquisition of word meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21, 285-301.
Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H. & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons. Language Learning 51(2), 281-318.
Ellis, R., Loewen, S., & Erlam, R. (2006). Implicit and explicit corrective feedback and the acquisition of L2 grammar. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28, 339-368.
Faraco, M., & Kida, T. (2008). Gesture and the negotiation of meaning in a second language classroom. In McCafferty, S. G. & Stam, G. (Eds.). Gesture: Second language acquisition and classroom research, 280-297. London: Routledge.
Fernández-García, M. & Martínez-Arbelaiz, A. (2014). Native speaker – non-native speaker study abroad conversations: Do they provide feedback and opportunities for pushed output? System 42, 93-104.
Firth, A. & Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal, 81(3). 285-300.
Gass, S., M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Gass, S. (2003). Input and interaction in Doughty, C. & Long, M. H. (Eds): The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Gass, S., M. & Varonis, E. (1985). Variation in native speaker speech modification to non-native speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 7, 37-57.
Gass, S., M. & Varonis, E. (1989). Incorporated repairs in NNS discourse. In M. Eisenstein (Ed.), The dynamic interlanguage 71-86, New York: Plenum.
Gass, S., M. & Varonis, E. (1994). Input, interaction and second language production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16, 283-302.
Gass, S., Mackey, A., & Pica, T. (1998). The role of input and interaction in second language acquisition: An introduction. Modern Language Journal 82, 299-307.
Gass, S., & Mackey, A. (2000). Stimulated recall methodology in second language research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gass, S., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gregersen, T. (2007). Language learning beyond words: incorporating body language into classroom activities. Iowa: University of Northern Iowa.
Hall, J. K. (2010). Interaction as method and result of language learning. Language Teaching 43(2), 202-215.
Hamp-Lyons, L. & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing: a course in writing skills for academic purposes. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Harmer, J. (1983). The practice of English language teaching. London and New York: Longman.
Hatch, E. (1978a). Discourse analysis and second language acquisition in Hatch E. (Ed.): Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Hatch, E. (1978b). Apply with caution. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2. 123-143.
Haught, J. R., & McCafferty, S. G. (2008). Embodied language performance: Drama and second language teacher. In Lantolf, J. P., & Poehner, M. (Eds.). Sociocultural theory and the teaching of languages, 139-162. Oakville, CT: Equinox Press.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hendrickson, J. M. (1978). Error correction in foreign language teaching: Recent theory, research, and practice. The Modern Language Journal, 62(8). 387-398.
Iwashita, N. (2003). Negative feedback and positive evidence in task-based interaction: Different effects on L2 development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 25. 1-36.
Kerz, E., Wiechmann, D., & Riedel, F. B. (2017). Implicit learning in the crowd: Investigating the role of awareness in the acquisition of L2 knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 39, 711-734.
Krashen, S. (1978). Second language acquisition in Dingwell, W. (Ed.): A Survey of Linguistic Science. Stamford, CT: Greylock.
Krashen, S. (1998). Comprehensible output? System 26, 175-182.
Kurhila, S. (c2006). Second language interaction. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.
Lantolf, James P. (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford [Eng.]; New York: Oxford University Press.
Lee, A. H. & Lyster, R. (2016). The effects of corrective feedback on instructed L2 speech perception. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38, 35-64.
Lee, C. F. K. (2004). Language output, communication strategies and communicative tasks: in the Chinese context. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America
Leow, R. P. (1995). Modality and intake in SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17. 79-89.
Leow, R. P. (1997). Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 47. 467-505.
Leow, R. P. (2000). A study of the role of awareness in foreign language behavior. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22, 557-584.
Leow, R. P. (2001). Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 51, Issue Supplement sl, 113-155.
Leow, R. P., & Hama, M. (2013). Implicit learning in SLA and the issue of internal validity. A response to
Leung and Williams (2011). The implicit learning of mappings between form and contextually derived meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35. 545-557.
Liddicoat, A. J. (1997). Interaction, social structure and second language use: A response to Firth and Wagner. Modern Language Journal 81(3). 313-317.
Lightbown, P. (2000). Anniversary article. Classroom SLA research and second language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 431-462.
Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Loewen, S. & Philp, J. (2006). Recasts in the adult English L2 classroom: characteristics, explicitness, and effectiveness. The Modern Language Journal 90(4), 536-556.
Long, M. (1980). Input, interaction, and second language acquisition. In. H. Winitz (Ed.), Native language and foreign language acquisition: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 379, 259-278.
Long, M. (1981). Input, interaction, and second language acquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Long, M. (1983a). Linguistic and conversational adjustments to non-native speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 5, 177-193.
Long, M. (1983b). Native speaker / non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics 4, 126-141.
Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition in Ritchie, W.C. & Bhatia, T. K. (Eds.): The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. New York: Academic Press.
Long, M., Inagaki, S. & Ortega, L. (1998). The role of implicit negative
feedback in SLA: Models and recasts in Japanese and Spanish. Modern Language Journal 82, 357-371.
Long, M. (2007). Second and foreign language education in Mathinson, S. & Ross, W. (Eds): Battleground Schools: An Encyclopedia of Conflict and Controversy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Long, M. and Sato, C. J. (1983). Classroom foreigner talk discourse: forms and functions of teachers’ question. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long, eds. Classroom-oriented research in second language acquisition, 268-285. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Long, M. H. & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: theory, research and practice in Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (eds.). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Loschky, L. (1989). The Effects of Negotiated Interaction and Premodified Input on Second Language Comprehension and Retention (Occasional Paper No. 16). Honolulu: University of Hawai’I at Manoa.
Loschky, L. (1994). Comprehensible input and second language acquisition: what is the relationship? Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16, 303-323.
Lyster, R. (2004). Differential effects of prompts and recasts in form-focused instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 399-432.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1995). Getting learners to notice: Negotiation of form as negative evidence. Paper presented at Second Language Research Forum ’95, Cornell University, New York.
Lyster, R. & Ranta, L. (1997). Differential effects of prompts and recasts in form-focused instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 20, 37-66.
Lyster, R. & Saito, K. (2010). Oral feedback in classroom SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32, 265-302.
Lyster, R., Saito, K., & Sato, M. (2013). Oral corrective feedback in second language classrooms. Language Teaching 46, 1-40.
Mackey, A. & J. Philp. (1998). Conversational interaction and second language development: Recasts, responses, and red herrings? The Modern Language Journal 82, 338-356.
Mackey, A. (1999). Input, interaction, and second language development: An empirical study of question formation in ESL. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21, 557-587.
Mackey, A. (2000, October). Feedback, noticing and second language development: An empirical study of L2 classroom interaction. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the British Association for Applied Linguistics. Cambridge, UK.
Mackey, A. & Gass, S. (2000). How do learners perceive interactional feedback? Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22, 471-497.
Mackey, A., S. Gass, & K. McDonough. (2000). How do learners perceive implicit negative feedback? Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22, 471–497.
Mackey, A., K. McDonough, A. Fujii, & T. Tatsumi. (2001). Investigating learners’ reports about the L2 classroom, International Review of Applied Linguistics 39. 285–308.
Mackey, A. (2002). Beyond production: Learners’ perceptions about interactional processes, International Journal of Educational Research 37, 379–94.
Mackey, A., & R. Oliver. (2002). Interactional feedback and children’s L2 development. System 30, 459-477.
Mackey, A., R. Oliver, & J. Leeman. (2003). Interactional input and the incorporation of feedback: An exploration of NS-NNS and NNS-NNS adult and child dyads. Language Learning 53, 35–66.
Mackey, A. & R. E. Silver. (2005). Interactional tasks and English L2 learning by immigrant children in Singapore. System 33, 239-260.
Mackey, A. (2006). Feedback, noticing and instructed second language learning. Applied Linguistics 27(3), 405-430.
Mackey, A. & S. Gass. (2006). Pushing the methodological boundaries in interaction research: An introduction to the special issue. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 28, 169-178.
Mackey, A. (2007). Interaction as practice in DeKeyser, R. (Ed.): Practice in Second Language Learning: Perspectives from Linguistics and Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Manoli, P., Papadopoulou, M. & Metallidou, P. (2016). Investigating the immediate and delayed effects of multiple-reading strategy instruction in primary EFL classrooms. System 56, 54-65.
McCafferty, S. G. (2002). Gesture and creating zones of proximal development for second language learning, Modern Language Journal 2(2), 192-203
McDonough, K. (2005). Identifying the impact of negative feedback and learners’ responses on ESL question development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27, 79–103
McDonough, K. & Mackey, A. (2006). Responses to recasts: repetition, primed production, and linguistic development. Language Learning 56(4), 693-720
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. & Pawlak, M. (c2012). Production-oriented and comprehension-based grammar teaching in the foreign language classroom. Heidelberg: Springer.
Nakata, T. (2017). Does repeated practice make perfect? The effects of within-session repeated retrieval on second language vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 39, 635-679.
Nakatsukasa, Kimi. (2016). Efficacy of recasts and gestures on the acquisition of locative prepositions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38, 771-799.
Negretti, R. (1999). Web-based activities and SLA: A conversation analysis research approach. Language Learning & Technology 3(1), 61-72
Nicholas, H., Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2001). Recasts as feedback to language learners. Language Learning 51, 719-758.
Nobuyoshi, J. & Ellis, R. (1993). Focused communication tasks and second language acquisition. English Language Teaching Journal 47, 203-210
Oliver, R. (1995). Negative feedback in child NS-NNS conversation. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17, 459-481.
Oliver, R. (1998). Negotiation of meaning in child interactions. The Modern Language Journal 82, 372-386.
Oliver, R. (2000). Age differences in negotiation and feedback in classroom and pair work. Language Learning,50(1), 119-151.
Oliver, R. & Mackey, A. (2003). Interactional context and feedback in child ESL classrooms. The Modern Language Journal 87(4), 519-533.
Pica, T. (1987). Second language acquisition, social interaction, and the classroom. Applied Linguistics 8, 3-21.
Pica, T. (1988). Interlanguage adjustments as an outcome of NS-NNS negotiated interaction. Language Learning 38, 45-73.
Pica, T. (1992). The textual outcomes of native speaker/non-native speaker negotiation: what do they reveal about second language learning? In Kramsch, C. & McConnell-Ginet, S. (eds.): Text in Context: Cross Disciplinary Perspectives on Language Study. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
Pica, T. & Doughty, C. (1985). Input and interaction in the communicative language classroom: A comparison of teacher-fronted and group activities. In Gass, S. & Madden, C. (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 115-132). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Pica, T., Doughty, C., & Young, R. (1986). Making input comprehensible: Do interactional modifications help? ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 72, 1-25.
Pica, T. & Long, M. (1986). The linguistic and conversational performance of experienced and inexperienced teachers. In R. R. Day, ed. Talking to learn: conversation in second language acquisition, 85-98. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Pica, T., Young, R., & Doughty, C. (1987). The impact of interaction on comprehension. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 737–758.
Pica, T., L. Holliday, N. Lewis, and L. Morgenthaler. (1989). ‘Comprehensible
output as an outcome of linguistic demands on the learner,’ Studies in Second Language Acquisition 11, 63–90
Pica, T., F. Paninos, Lincoln-Porter, D., & Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output, and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30(I), 59-84.
Platt, E., & Brooks, F. B. (2008). Embodiment as self-regulation in L2 task performance. In McCafferty, S. G., & Stam, G. (Eds.) Gesture: Second language acquisition and classroom research, 66-87. London: Routledge.
Poyatos, F. (1980). Man as a socializing being: New integrative and interdisciplinary perspectives through cultural and cross-cultural studies in nonverbal communication in von Raffler-Engel.
Radwan, A. A. (2005). The effectiveness of explicit attention to form in language learning. System 33, 69-87
Rassaei, E. (2015). Oral corrective feedback, foreign language anxiety and L2 development. System 49, 98-109.
Rassaei, Ehsan. (2013). Corrective feedback, learners’ perceptions, and second language development. System 41, 472-483.
Roothooft, H. (2014). The relationship between adult EFL teachers’ oral feedback practices and their beliefs. System 46, 65-79.
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. (2004). Awareness, different learning conditions, and L2 development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 269-292.
Rosa, E., & O’Neill, M. D. (1999). Explicitness, intake, and the issue of awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 511-556.
Sachs, R., & Suh, R. R. (2007). Textually enhanced recasts, learner awareness, and L2 outcomes in synchronous computer-mediated interactions. In Mackey, A. (Ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition: A series of empirical studies, 197-227. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sakai, H. (2011). Do recasts prompt noticing the gap in L2 learning? Asian EFL Journal, 12. 357-385
Sanz, C. & Morgan-Short, K. (2004). Positive evidence versus explicit rule presentation and explicit negative feedback: A computer-assisted study. Language Learning, 54. 35-78.
Sato, M. & Lyster, R. (2007). Modified output of Japanese EFL learners: variable effects of interlocutor versus feedback types. In Mackey, A (ed.). Conversational Interaction in Second Language Acquisition: A Collection of Empirical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schegloff, E., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language 53, 361-382
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics 11. 129-158.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13. 206-226.
Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. SILA Review, 11. 11-26.
Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning in R. Schmidt (ed.): Attention and Awareness in Foreign Language Learning. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, pp. 1–63.
Schmidt, R. & S. Frota. (1986). Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese in R. Day (ed.): ‘Talking to learn’: Conversation in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. pp. 237–326.
Schmidt, R. W. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. W. (2012). Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. In Chan, W. M., Chin, K. N., Bhatt, S. K.., & Walker, I. (Eds.), Perspectives on individual characteristics and foreign language education, 27-50. Boston/Berlin: De Gruyter Mounton.
Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning teaching: A guidebook for English language teachers. Oxford: MacMillan Education.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1986). Comprehension vs. acquisition: Two ways of processing input. Applied Linguistics, 7. 239-256.
Sheen, Y. (2004). Corrective feedback and learner uptake in communicative classrooms across instructional settings. Language Teaching Research 8(3), 263-300.
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effects of corrective feedback, language aptitude, and learner attitudes on the acquisition of English articles. In Mackey, A (Eds.), Conversational Interaction in Second Language Acquisition: A Collection of Empirical Studies, 301-322. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sheen, Y. (2010). Differential effects of oral and written corrective feedback in the ESL classroom. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32, 203-234.
Shih, Y. (2014). Communication strategies in a multimodal virtual communication context. System 42, 34-47.
Sime, D. (2006). What do learners make of teachers’ gestures in the language classroom? International Review of Applied Linguistics, 44. 209-228.
Sime, D. (2008). “Because of her gesture, it’s very easy to understand”: Learner’s perceptions of teachers’ gestures in the foreign language class. In McCafferty, S. G., & Stam, G. (Eds.) Gesture: Second language acquisition and classroom research, 259-279. London: Routledge.
Smith, B. (2004). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction and lexical acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26, 365-398.
Spada, N., & FrÖhlich, M. (1995). COLT. Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching observation scheme: Coding conventions and applications. Sydney, Australia: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Swain, M. (1988). Manipulating and complementing content teaching to maximize second language learning. TESL Canada Journal, 6. 68–83.
Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing aren’t enough. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50. 158–164.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.). Principles and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson, 125–144. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research’ in E. Hinkel (ed.): Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 471–83.
Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (1998). Interaction and second language learning: two adolescent French immersion students working together. The Modern Language Journal, 82(3), 320–337.
Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2001). Focus on form through collaborative dialogue: exploring task effects. In Bygate, M., Skehan, P., and Swain, M. (eds). Researching Pedagogic Tasks: Second Language Learning, Teaching, and Testing. London: Longman.
Swales, J. M. & Feak, C. B. (c2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills. The University of Michigan Press, the USA: Ann Arbor.
Tarone, E. (2009). A sociolinguistic perspective on interaction in SLA. In Mackey, A. and Polio, C. (eds.): Multiple Perspectives on Interaction: Second Language Research in Honor of Susan M. Gass. New York, NY: Routledge.
Tomlin, R. S. and Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(2). 183-203.
Trager, G. L. (1958). Paralanguage: A first approximation. Studies in Linguistics, 13. 1-12.
Trager, G. L. (1960). Taos III: Paralanguage. Anthropological Linguistics, 2, 24-30.
Trager, G. L. (1961). The typology of paralanguage. Anthropological Linguistics, 3 (1). 17–21.
Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
VanPatten, B. & Williams, J. (2007). Theories in second language acquisition: an introduction. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Varnosfadrani, A. D. & Basturkmen, H. (2007). The effectiveness of implicit and explicit error correction on learners’ performance. System 37, 82-98.
Varonis, E. & Gass. S. M. (1985). Non-native/non-native conversations: a model for negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics 6(I), 71-90.
Wagner-Gough, J. & Hatch, E. (1975). The importance of input data in second language acquisition studies. Language Learning 25, 297-308.
Wagner, J. (1996). Foreign language acquisition through interaction – A critical review of research on conversational adjustments. Journal of Pragmatics 26, 215-235.
White, L. (1987). Against comprehensible input: the input hypothesis and the development of second language competence. Applied Linguistics, 8. 95-110.
White, L. (1990). Implications of learnability theories for second language learning and teaching, In M. A. K. Halliday, J. Gibbons, & H. Nicholas (Eds.), Learning, Keeping and Using Language (pp. 271-286). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Williams, J. (1999). Learner-generated attention to form. Language Learning 49(4), 583-625.
Yang, Y. & Lyster, R. (2010). Effects of form-focused practice and feedback on Chinese EFL learners’ acquisition of regular and irregular past tense forms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 32, 235-263.