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研究生：	吳穎沺 Ying-Tien Wu
論文名稱：	高中生對於核能發電爭議之非制式推理思考-兼探網路探究活動之影響 High school students’ informal reasoning on the debates of nuclear power usage, with an investigation on the effects of on-line inquiry activities
指導教授：	蔡今中 Tsai, Chin-Chung 張俊彥 Chang, Chun-Yen
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	地球科學系 Department of Earth Sciences
論文出版年：	2007
畢業學年度：	95
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	240
中文關鍵詞：	社會-科學爭議性議題、非制式推理思考、科學認識觀、認知結構、網路探究活動
英文關鍵詞：	socio-scientific issues, informal reasoning, scientific epistemological beliefs, cognitive structures, on-line inquiry activities
論文種類：	學術論文
相關次數：	點閱：245 下載：32
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At the 21st century, preparing learners’ ability to deal with socio-scientific issues has been recognized as an important goal for science education. In science education, previous studies regarding learners’ informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues were mainly conducted with qualitative analyses. With 68 tenth graders in Taiwan, this study initially attempted to explore students’ informal reasoning on a socio-scientific issue both qualitatively and quantitatively. In this study, “nuclear power usage” was used as the socio-scientific issue for the participants to reason. The conduct of this study was divided into two phases: the “informal reasoning exploration phase”, mainly examining the relationship between students’ informal reasoning and scientific epistemological beliefs (SEBs) as well as their cognitive structures, and the “on-line searching task phase”, mainly focusing on the effects of different on-line searching activities on students’ informal reasoning.
In the first phase, the students’ SEBs were accessed by a questionnaire; the data regarding the students’ cognitive structures were collected by tape-recorded interviews; and, an open-ended questionnaire was utilized to gather the data about the participants’ informal reasoning on nuclear power usage. The findings derived from the first phase imply that learners’ informal reasoning on a socio-scientific issue is, in general, correlated with their SEBs as well as their cognitive structures regarding this issue. Moreover, it was also found that the students’ usage of the “comparing” information processing mode was the best predictor for their informal reasoning quality, while their beliefs about the nature of science knowing was the second best predictor for their informal reasoning quality. Besides, the importance of the richness of students’ cognitive structures on their informal reasoning regarding a socio-scientific issue was also highlighted.
In the second phase, by using a quasi-experimental research approach, thirty-three students were assigned to a “guided searching task group”, while thirty-five students were assigned to an “unguided searching task group”. Both the students in the two groups were asked to search relevant information regarding nuclear power usage on the Internet and integrate what they had searched into a report during the period of two classes (100 minutes). However, the students in the un-guided searching task group were asked to search freely, while those in the guided searching task group were provided with a searching guideline. The results of second phase showed that the two groups of students did not show any significant difference on their searching outcomes (p>0.05), but it revealed significant effects of guided on-line searching task on students’ cognitive structure outcomes as well as on their supportive argument construction (p<0.05). However, the guided on-line searching task in this study did not significantly facilitate students’ reasoning quality. Besides, the interaction between students’ SEBs and instructional conditions on students’ searching outcomes as well as on their cognitive structure outcomes was found; also, the interaction between students’ information commitments and instructional condition on students’ cognitive structure outcomes as well as on their informal reasoning outcomes was revealed. It suggests that, when trying to improve students’ informal reasoning ability in Internet-based learning environments, science instructors should pay more attention to the role of learners’ SEBs and the information commitments in their learning outcomes.
In sum, the findings in current study did provide more insights into the nature of students’ informal reasoning on a socio-scientific issue, and also showed some initial evidences on the usefulness of on-line searching activities on learners’ informal reasoning on this issue.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION…………………………………
1
I.1 Background of the Study………………………………………………...
1
I.2 Need for the Study……………………………………………………….
2
I.3 Overview of the study...………………………………………………….
5
I.4 Research Questions………………………………………………………
7
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………...
9
II.1 Informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues………………………….
9
II.1.1 What is informal reasoning?................................................................
9
II.1.1.1 Formal reasoning and informal reasoning……………………
9
II.1.1.2 The mechanism of informal reasoning……………………….
11
II.1.2 Socio-scientific issues and its relation to informal reasoning……….
14
II.1.3 Previous studies regarding informal reasoning in educational psychology…………………………………………………………..    16
II.1.3.1 The relationship between learners’ conceptual understanding and their informal reasoning………………………………….    16
II.1.3.2 The relationship between learners’ epistemological beliefs and their Informal reasoning………………………………….    16
II.1.4 Previous studies regarding informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues………………………………………………………………...
18
II.1.4.1 Representing learners’ informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues………………………………………………………….    18
II.1.4.2 The criteria students use to evaluative scientific information regarding a socio-scientific issue……………………………..    21
II.1.4.3 The relationship between learners’ conceptual understanding and their Informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues………    21
II.1.4.4 The relationship between learners’ beliefs about the nature of       science and their Informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues………………………………………………………….
24
II.2 Scientific epistemological beliefs……………………………………….
27
II.2.1 Conceptualization of personal epistemology………………………..
27
II.2.1.1 Developmental models for personal epistemology…………..
28
II.2.1.2 Independent beliefs model of personal epistemology………..
34
II.2.1.3 Alternative models of personal epistemology………………..
36
II.2.1.4 Consistent dimensions summarized by Hofer and Pintrich…..
37
II.2.1.5 Is personal epistemology domain general or domain specific?....................................................................................    38
II.2.2 Scientific epistemological beliefs and science learning……………..
39
II.2.2.1 Scientific epistemological beliefs (SEBs) and beliefs on nature of science (NOS)………………………………………    40
II.3. Exploration of cognitive structures…………………………………...
44
II.3.1 Cognitive structure and its dimensions……………….......................
44
II.3.2 The assessment of cognitive structure……………………………….
47
II.3.3 Findings derived from previous studies conducted with the flow map method………………………………………………………….    47
II.3.3.1 The methodological issue regarding the flow map method…..
47
II.3.3.2 Exploring learners’ knowledge construction or development with the flow map method……………………………………    48
II.3.3.3 The relationships between students’ performances on the variables obtained from their flow maps……………………..    50
II.3.3.4 Learners’ achievement, performances on laboratory work, SEBs and their cognitive structure outcomes derived from flow maps…………………………………………………….    51
II.3.3.5 The effects of science learning activities on students’ cognitive structure outcomes…………………………………    53
II.3.3.6 The role of teachers’ knowledge structures in their ability to diagnose students’ conceptual understanding………………..    55
II.4 Internet-based science learning, on-line searching activities, and information commitments……………………………………………...    55
II.4.1 The Internet and science learning……………………………………
55
II.4.2 On-line searching activities and learners’ information commitments…………………………………………………….......    56
II.4.3 The role of epistemological beliefs on Internet-based learning……..
61
II.5 Theoretical Model………………………………………………………
63
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY................................................
67
III.1. Methodology of the Informal Reasoning Exploration Phase………
67
III.1.1 Subjects and the socio-scientific issue……………………………...
67
III.1.2 General research design…………………………………………….
68
III.1.3 Instruments, data collection and data analyses……………………..
69
III.1.3.1. Assessing students’ scientific epistemological beliefs……...
69
III.1.3.2. Exploring students’ cognitive structure regarding nuclear power………………………………………………………...    71
III.1.3.3 Evaluating students’ informal reasoning on nuclear power usage…………………………………………………………    74
III.2. Methodology of the On-line searching Task Phase………………….
82
III.2.1 General research design…………………………………………….
82
III.2.2 On-line searching tasks……………………………………………..
83
III.2.3 Instruments………………………………………………………….
84
III.2.4 Data collection and data analyses…………………………………..
86
III.2.4.1 Exploring students’ on-line searching outcomes…………….
86
III.2.4.2 Exploring students’ cognitive outcomes, and informal reasoning outcomes………………………………………….    88
CHAPTER IV: MAJOR FINDINGS……………………………..
90
IV.1. Results derived from the Informal Reasoning Exploration Phase…
90
IV.1.1 Results derived from the initial analyses of students' informal reasoning Outcomes………………………………………………..    93
IV.1.1.1 Students’ decision-making modes…………………………...
93
IV.1.1.2 Students’ argument-construction for different purposes and usage of different reasoning modes…………………………..    93
IV.1.1.3 Students’ evaluative standard formation and justification…..
96
IV.1.2 Results derived from the follow-up analyses of students' informal reasoning Outcomes………………………………………………..    100
IV.1.2.1 Students’ informal reasoning outcomes between different decision-making mode groups……………………………….    100
IV.1.2.2 Students’ informal reasoning outcomes between two different evaluative standard formation groups……………..    102
IV.1.2.3 Students’ informal reasoning outcomes between two different self-perceived rationality groups…………………..    104
IV.1.2.4 Students’ informal reasoning outcomes between two different reasoning level groups……………………………..    104
IV.1.2.5 Correlations between students’ argument construction for different purposes and usage of reasoning modes…………..    108
IV.1.3 Descriptive data regarding students’ scientific epistemological beliefs and their cognitive structure regarding nuclear power usage………………………………………………………………..    110
IV.1.3.1 Descriptive data regarding students’ scientific epistemological beliefs………………………………………    109
IV.1.3.2 Descriptive data regarding students’ cognitive structure regarding nuclear power usage……………………………...    110
IV.1.4 The interplay between students’ SEBs and their informal reasoning outcomes…………………………………………………………...    111
IV.1.4.1 Students’ SEBs and their decision-making modes………….
111
IV.1.4.2 The relationships between students’ SEBs and their argument-construction for different purposes (as well as their usage of reasoning modes)……………………………..    113
IV.1.4.3 Students’ SEBs and their initial perspective for forming their initial position toward nuclear power usage…………...    114
IV.1.4.4 Students’ SEBs and their self-perceived rationality for their decision-making……………………………………………..    116
IV.1.5 The interplay between students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their informal reasoning outcomes…………………………………    118
IV.1.5.1 Students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their decision-making modes……………………………………...    118
IV.1.5.2 The relationships between students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their argument-construction for different purposes (as well as their usage of reasoning modes)……….    118
IV.1.5.3 Students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their initial perspective for forming their initial position toward nuclear power usage………………………………………………….    120
IV.1.6 The ability of students’ SEBs as predictors for their informal reasoning outcomes………………………………………………...    122
IV.1.6.1 The ability of students’ SEBs as predictors for their rebuttal construction………………………………………………….    122
IV.1.6.2 The ability of students’ SEBs as the predictors for their usage of reasoning modes…………………………………...    123
IV.1.7 The ability of students’ cognitive structure outcomes as predictors for their informal reasoning outcomes……………………………..    123
IV.1.7.1 The ability of the extent, the richness and the integratedness of students’ cognitive structure as the predictors for their rebuttal construction………………………………………...    124
IV.1.7.2 The ability of the extent, the richness and the integratedness of students’ cognitive structure as the predictors for their usage of reasoning modes…………………………………...    124
IV.1.7.3 The ability of students’ usage of different information processing modes as the predictors for their rebuttal construction………………………………………………….    125
IV.1.7.4 The ability of students’ usage of different information processing modes as the predictors for their usage of reasoning modes…………………………………………….    126
IV.1.7.5 The ability of all the students’ cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors for their for their rebuttal construction……    126
IV.1.7.6 The ability of all the students’ cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors for their for their usage of reasoning modes………………………………………………………..    126
IV.1.8. The ability of students’ SEBs and cognitive structure outcomes as predictors for their informal reasoning outcomes………………….    127
IV.1.8.1 The ability of students’ SEBs and cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors for their rebuttal construction…..    127
IV.1.8.2 The ability of students’ SEBs and cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors for their usage of reasoning modes………………………………………………………..    128
IV.2. Results derived from the on-line searching task Phase……………..
129
IV.2.1 Results regarding the initial conditions of the students in the two on-line searching task groups………………………………………    130
IV.1.2.1 Students’ SEBs, cognitive structure outcomes and informal   reasoning outcomes before the conduct of on-line searching tasks………………………………………………………….    130
IV.1.2.2 Students’ information commitments and their on-line hours per-week……………………………………………………..    133
IV.2.2 The effects of different on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes………………………………………………….    134
IV.2.2.1 The effects of different on-line searching tasks on the students’ searching outcomes………………………………..    134
IV.2.2.2 The effects of different on-line searching tasks on the students’ cognitive structure outcomes……………………...    135
IV.2.2.3 The effects of different on-line searching tasks on the students’ informal reasoning outcomes……………………...    137
IV.2.3 The interaction between the students’ SEBs and on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes…………………………..    139
IV.2.3.1 The interaction between the students’ SEBs and on-line searching tasks on the students’ searching outcomes……….    139
IV.2.3.2 The interaction between the students’ SEBs and on-line searching tasks on the students’ cognitive structure outcomes…………………………………………………….    146
IV.2.3.3 The interaction between the students’ SEBs and on-line searching tasks on the students’ informal reasoning outcomes…………………………………………………….    152
IV.2.4 The interaction between the students’ information commitments and on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes……………………………………………………………    157
IV.2.4.1 The interaction between the students’ information commitments and on-line searching tasks on the students’ searching outcomes………………………………………….    157
IV.2.4.2 The interaction between the students’ information commitments and on-line searching tasks on the students’ cognitive structure outcomes………………………………..    164
IV.2.4.3 The interaction between the students’ information commitments and on-line searching tasks on the students’ informal reasoning outcomes………………………………..    172
IV.3. Summarization of the findings derived from the two Phases………
180
IV.3.1 Summarization of the findings derived from the informal reasoning exploration phase…………………………………………………...    180
IV.3.2 Summarization of the findings derived from the on-line searching task phase…………………………………………………………...    186
CHAPTER V DISSCUSSION AND CONCLUSION……………
189
V.1 Discussions on the major findings derived from the informal reasoning exploration phase……………………………………………    190
V.1.1 Students’ usage of reasoning modes, decision-making modes, and reasoning quality…………………………………………………….    190
V.1.2 Students’ supportive argument and counter argument construction before and after making personal positions…………………………    191
V.1.3 The formation of students’ initial positions…………………………
191
V.1.4 Students’ evaluative criteria for arguments regarding two opposite positions……………………………………………………………..    192
V.1.5 Students’ further need for making rational decisions………………..
193
V.1.6 Students’ self-perceived rationality…………………………………..
195
V.1.7 Gender difference on students’ informal reasoning regarding a socio-scientific issue………………………………………………...    196
V.1.8 Students’ cognitive structure and informal reasoning outcomes between different decision-making mode groups…………………...    196
V.1.9 The characteristics of students of higher-level reasoning quality…...
197
V.1.10 Students’ SEBs and their informal reasoning quality……………...
198
V.1.11 Students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their reasoning quality (as well as their usage of different reasoning modes)……………….    200
V.1.12 The ability of students’ SEBs and cognitive structure outcomes as predictors for their informal reasoning……………………………...    202
V.2 Discussions on the major findings derived from the on-line searching task phase………………………………………………………………..    204
V.2.1 The effects of different on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes…………………………………………………...    204
V.2.2 The interaction between the students’ SEBs and on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes……………………………    206
V.2.3 The interaction between the students’ information commitments and on-line searching tasks on the students’ learning outcomes…….    208
V.3 Re-examination of the theoretical model of this study………………..
209
V.4 Conclusions……………………………………………………………...
214
REFERENCES……………………………………………………...    216
APPENDIXES……………………………………………………………….    235
Appendix 1: Questionnaire for assessing scientific epistemological beliefs…    235
Appendix 2: Open-ended questionnaire for evaluating informal reasoning on nuclear power usage…………………………………………….    237
Appendix 3: Work sheet provided to the unguided on-line searching task group……………………………………………………………    238
Appendix 4: Work sheet provided to the guided on-line searching task group……………………………………………………………    239
Appendix 5:   Appendix 5: Components, scales and items of the ICS………………………..    240



LIST OF TABLES
page
Table 2.1: Important distinctions between the two cognitive systems in dual-process theories………………………………………………..    12
Table 2.2: Summary of the representations of informal reasoning in previous studies……………………………………………………………….    20
Table 2.3: Summary of studies regarding students’ conceptual understanding and their informal reasoning on socio-scientific issues…………….    23
Table 2.4: Summary of studies regarding students’ views on the nature of science and their informal reasoning on socio-scientific issue……..    26
Table 2.5: Five developmental models for epistemological development……..    33
Table 2.6: A summary of Schommer’s main points of Epistemological Belief System………………………………………………………………    35
Table 3.1: A rubric for grading students’ report regarding nuclear power and nuclear power usage………………………………………………...    87
Table 4.1: Gender comparison on students’ decision-making modes………….    93
Table 4.2: Students’ argument-construction for different purposes and usage of different reasoning modes………………………………………..    94
Table 4.3: Gender comparisons on students’ argument-construction for different purposes and usage of different reasoning modes………...    95
Table 4.4: Comparisons of students’ argument construction before and after making their personal decisions on nuclear power usage…………..    96
Table 4.5: Gender comparison on students’ initial perspectives for forming their personal positions in the beginning…………………………...
97
Table 4.6: Students’ evaluative criteria for making their personal decisions on nuclear power usage………………………………………………...    98
Table 4.7: Gender comparison on students’ self-perceived rationality ………..    98
Table 4.8: Students’ responses on what they further need for making rational decisions on nuclear power usage…………………………………..    99
Table 4.9: Comparisons on students’ argument-construction and usage of reasoning modes across two different decision-making mode groups……………………………………………………………….    100
Table 4.10: Students’ initial perspectives and decision-making modes………..    101
Table 4.11: Students’ self-perceived rationality and decision-making modes…    102
Table 4.12: Comparisons on students’ argument-construction and usage of reasoning modes across evaluative standard groups………………    103
Table 4.13: Students’ reasoning levels and decision-making modes…………..    103
Table 4.14: Comparisons on students’ argument-construction and usage of reasoning modes across different perceived rationality groups…...    104
Table 4.15: Students’ reasoning levels and decision-making modes…………..    105
Table 4.16: Comparisons on students’ argument-construction and usage of reasoning modes across different reasoning level groups…………..    106
Table 4.17: Students’ reasoning levels and decision-making modes…………..    107
Table 4.18: Students’ reasoning levels and their self-perceived rationality……    107
Table 4.19: Correlations between students’ usage of arguments for different purposes and their usage of reasoning modes……………………..    109
Table 4.20: Students’ scores on the scales of questionnaire for assessing scientific epistemological beliefs………………………………….    110
Table 4.21: Students’ cognitive structure outcomes and information processing modes regarding nuclear power……………………….    111
Table 4.22: Students’ responses on the scales of SEBS between different decision-making mode groups……………………………………...    112
Table 4.23: Correlations between students’ responses on the scales of SEBs and their informal reasoning outcomes……………………………    113
Table 4.24: Comparisons on students’ responses on the scales of SEBs between different reasoning level groups………………….………    115
Table 4.25: Comparisons on students’ responses on the scales of SEBs between different initial perspective groups………………………    115
Table 4.26: Comparisons on students’ responses on the scales of SEBs between different perceived rationality groups……………………..    117
Table 4.27: Students’ cognitive structure outcomes between different decision-making mode groups……………………………………...    117
Table 4.28: Correlations between students’ cognitive structure outcomes and their argument-construction for different purposes (as well as their usage of reasoning modes)…………………………………...    119
Table 4.29: Comparisons on students’ cognitive structure outcomes between different reasoning level groups…………………………………...    119
Table 4.30: Comparisons on students’ cognitive structure outcomes between different initial perspective groups………………………………...    121
Table 4.31: Comparisons on students’ cognitive structure outcomes between different self-perceived rationality groups………………………...    121
Table 4.32: Stepwise regression model testing the predictors of the amount of students’ rebuttal construction……………………………………..    123
Table 4.33: Stepwise regression model testing the extent, the richness and the integratedness of students’ cognitive structure as the predictors for their rebuttal construction……………………………………...    124
Table 4.34: Stepwise regression model testing the ability of the extent, the richness and the integratedness of students’ cognitive structure as the predictors of students’ use of different reasoning modes……...    125
Table 4.35: Stepwise regression model testing the predictors of the amount of students’ rebuttal construction……………………………………..    125
Table 4.36: Stepwise regression model testing the ability of all the students’ cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors of the amount of students’ rebuttal construction……………………………………..    126
Table 4.37: Stepwise regression model testing the ability of all the students’ cognitive structure outcomes as the predictors of their usage of reasoning modes…………………………………………………...    127
Table 4.38: Stepwise regression model testing the predictors of students’ rebuttal construction……………………………………………….    128
Table 4.39: Stepwise regression model testing the predictors of the amount of students’ reasoning modes…………………………………………    129
Table 4.40: Comparisons on students’ scientific epistemological beliefs between two different on-line searching task groups……………...    131
Table 4.41: Comparisons on students’ cognitive structure regarding nuclear power between two different on-line searching task groups before the conduct of searching tasks (pretest)…………………………...    131
Table 4.42: Comparisons on students’ informal reasoning outcomes regarding nuclear power usage between two different on-line searching task groups before the conduct of searching tasks……………………..

132
Table 4.43: Comparisons on students’ information commitments and on-line hours per week between two different on-line searching task groups……………………………………………………………...    133
Table 4.44: Comparisons on students’ on-line searching outcomes between two different on-line searching task groups……………………….    134
Table 4.45: Comparisons on students’ cognitive structure regarding nuclear power between two different on-line searching task groups after the conduct of searching tasks…………………………………….    136
Table 4.46: Comparisons on students’ informal reasoning outcomes regarding nuclear power usage between two different on-line searching task groups after the conduct of searching tasks……………………….    138
Table 4.47: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (source) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………………..    140
Table 4.48: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (certainty) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………….    141
Table 4.49: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (development) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………….    142
Table 4.50: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (justification) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………….    143
Table 4.51: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (source) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    147
Table 4.52: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (certainty) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………

148
Table 4.53: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (development) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes…………………………………..    149
Table 4.54: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (justification) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes…………………………………..    150
Table 4.55: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (source) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes……………………………………...    153
Table 4.56: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (certainty) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes……………………………………...    154
Table 4.57: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (development) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes………………………………….    155
Table 4.58: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ SEBs (justification) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes…………………………………..    156
Table 4.59: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (multiple sources) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………    158
Table 4.60: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (authority) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………………..    159
Table 4.61: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (content) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………………..

160
Table 4.62: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (technical) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………………..    161
Table 4.63: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (elaboration) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………….    162
Table 4.64: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (match) and on-line searching activities for their on-line searching outcomes………………………………………..    163
Table 4.65: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (multiple sources) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………    165
Table 4.66: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (authority) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    166
Table 4.67: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (content) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    167
Table 4.68: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (technical) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    168
Table 4.69: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (elaboration) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    169
Table 4.70: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (match) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    170
Table 4.71: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (multiple sources) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes………………………………    173
Table 4.72: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (authority) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes ……………………………………..    174
Table 4.73: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (content) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes in the post-test……………………..    175
Table 4.74: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (technical) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes in the post-test……………………...    176
Table 4.75: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (elaboration) and on-line searching activities for the informal reasoning outcomes in the post-test……………………..    177
Table 4.76: Regression model testing the predictors of the interaction between students’ ICs (authority) and on-line searching activities for the cognitive structure outcomes………………………………………    178
Table 4.77 Summary of the major findings derived from the informal reasoning exploration phase……………………………………….    181
Table 4.78 Summary of the major findings derived from the on-line searching task phase………………………………………………………….    186



LIST OF FIGURES
page
Figure 2.1: The process of learners’ informal reasoning………………………    14
Figure 2.2: Students’ scientific epistemological beliefs and their science learning…………………………………………………………….    43
Figure 2.3: The theoretical model of this study………………………………..    66
Figure 3.1: A student’s flow map about nuclear power………………………..    72
Figure 3.2: An integrated framework for analyzing students’ informal reasoning on nuclear power usage…………………………………    77
Figure 4.1: A framework for presenting the results derived from the informal reasoning exploration phase……………………………………….    92
Figure 4.2: Framework for presenting the results derived from the on-line searching task phase……………………………………………….    130
Figure 4.3: The interaction between SEBs (source) and on-line searching task on the amount of student on-line searching outcomes…………….    145
Figure 4.4: The interaction between SEBs (source) and on-line searching task on the organization of student on-line searching outcomes………..    145
Figure 4.5: The interaction between SEBs (development) and on-line searching task on student usage of the “inferring or explaining” information processing mode……………………………………...    151
Figure 4.6: The interaction between information commitments (match) and on-line searching task on the integrateness of student cognitive structures………………………………………………………….
171
Figure 4.7: The interaction between information commitments (multiple sources) and on-line searching task on the total number of arguments………………………………………………………….    179
Figure 5.1: Re-examination of the theoretical model of this study…………….    213
                                

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