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研究生： 朱秀瑜
Hsiu-yu Chu
論文名稱： 利害關係、需求與回沖效應:以台灣之大學英文畢業門檻為例
Stakes, Needs and Washback: An Investigation of the English Benchmark Policy for Graduation and EFL Education at Two Technological Universities in Taiwan
指導教授： 葉錫南
Yeh, Hsi-Nan
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 英語學系
Department of English
論文出版年： 2009
畢業學年度： 97
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 314
中文關鍵詞： 回沖效應 、利害關係 、語言需求 、中介因素 、英文畢業門檻政策
英文關鍵詞： washback, stakes, language needs, mediating factors, English benchmark policy for graduation
論文種類： 學術論文
相關次數： 點閱：323  下載：39 
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    • 中文摘要
    本研究旨在探討英文畢業門檻之回沖效應(washback effect)、相關之「利害關係」(stakes)，以及其他可能之中介因素 (mediating factors)。此外，基於「將學生需求納入考試，有助於產生正向回沖效應 (positive washback)」的假設 (Saif, 1999, 2006)，本研究亦對學生之英語需求(needs)進行調查，以期進一步了解學生之英語需求、英文畢業門檻，以及大學英文教育三方之間的關係，是否符合產生正向回沖效應之條件。本研究並試圖以 Green (2007)的model of washback 作理論上之驗證及整合。

    本研究進行之場域為台灣兩所設有相同英文畢業門檻及類似配套措施的科技大學。研究方法則採取質性與量化並用。資料之收集包括: 訪談(老師、行政主管、學生及雇主)、教室觀察、教材、全民英檢考古題，以及學生及教師之問卷調查。資料來源多元化，以利於進行各項分析及交互驗證(triangulation)。

    結論發現英文畢業門檻對教師及學生之回沖效應均低，且多為負面。藉由Green的model of washback 和Saif的假設檢視研究結果後，發現相關之「利害關係」太低，以及門檻不符學生對英語之實際需求實為主因。除此之外，儘管台灣社會對於實施英文畢業門檻已具相當程度之共識，但各方關係人(stakeholder) 對此政策仍有不盡相同的意見及看法。

    根據上述發現，本研究提出具體之建議: 大學英文畢業門檻不同於一般之入學考試，應著重於學生之多樣性及未來畢業後之考量。因此統一之考試標準，如通過全民英檢某級數，恐不符合目前實際狀況，學生應該給予更大之彈性以通過畢業門檻(如採用分級制，不同程度者有不同之進步要求)。而教師們在配合學生需求上則需要花費更大之心力，將學生需求透過測驗及教學之改進，以達到最佳之回沖效應(strong and positive washback)。

    Abstract
    This present study investigated the washback effects of the English exit exam, the stakes of the graduation benchmark policy and possible mediating factors at two technological universities in Taiwan, which had similar English benchmark policies for graduation. Students’ English language needs were also investigated for their relationship with the graduation benchmark requirement and the EFL higher education based on the assumption that positive washback is likely to be generated if students’ language needs are taken into consideration.

    Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed for the present study. Qualitatively, classroom observations and interviews with different stakeholders were conducted and the teaching materials and GEPT test samples were collected for all the related issues. Quantitatively, the Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) and Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) were conducted to explore issues on washback and stakes. Students’ Questionnaire 2 (SQ2) was used to collect information on students’ language needs. Data from different sources were analyzed and triangulated throughout the research project to ensure validity of the results and avoid possible biases.

    The results show that the washback on teaching was limited to only a “superficial” level, such as teaching test-taking strategies, delivering test information, using GEPT mock tests and so on. The washback on learning was also very little and mostly negative, because the benchmark was too high for a majority of students, while it was of little help to a few high-achieving students in terms of their eagerness to learn English. The perceived stakes of the English exit exam and its make-up measures were generally low among teachers and students. Although most teachers and low-achieving students worried about the graduation benchmark, they tended not to believe the possible consequences to suffer. The low stakes of the graduation benchmark policy were associated with its limited washback on teaching and learning. The investigation into students’ actual English language needs in the future job market, the EFL higher education and the graduation benchmark requirement show that the three areas did not match well with each other, reducing the possible positive washback that the English exit exam could generate on teachers and students. Also, no effective mediating factors were found to affect the washback effects except that teachers with more administrative experience tended to perceive more pressure from the school administration, and students with low English proficiency worried more about the English exit exam.

    The findings of the present study were reviewed through Green’s (2007) model of washback and were fully explained, confirming the important roles of test stakes, test difficulty and language needs as reflected in the test design whenever washback is to be taken into consideration. It is also suggested that the English benchmark for graduation should no longer be one fixed line which appears to be high for low-achieving students but low for high-achieving ones. Accordingly, renovated curriculum and tests that aim at students’ language needs and their progress in relation to their entry level might be able to push the currently weak and negative washback towards a healthier dimension.

    Chinese Abstract i English Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii List of Transcription Symbols xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCATION 1 Background and Rationale 1 Issues in previous washback studies 2 The graduation benchmark policy in Taiwan’s EFL higher education 3 Mediating factors that affect washback effects 10 Students’ English language needs and EFL higher education in Taiwan 13 Purpose of the Study 14 Research Questions 15 Significance of the Study 15 Chapter Summary 16 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 17 Washback on Teachers 17 Washback on teaching content and teaching methods 19 Washback on teachers’ attitudes and feelings 23 Washback on Students 24 Washback on students’ attitudes and perceptions 24 Washback on students’ learning outcomes 26 Direction and Intensity of Washback 27 Factors That Affect Washback 30 Test factors and prestige factors 30 Personal factors 34 Teachers’ beliefs about teaching 34 Teachers’ beliefs about testing 36 Learners’ beliefs about language learning 37 Learners’ beliefs about testing 38 Micro-context factors 39 Macro-context factors 40 Language Needs and Washback 40 Chapter Summary 45 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 46 Research Context 46 Instruments and Participants 50 The general plan for the research instruments and participants 50 Questionnaires 51 Theoretical basis for the TQ and SQ1 52 The Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) on washback and stakes: pilot study 54 Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) on washback and stakes: pilot study 58 Students’ Questionnaire 2 (SQ2) on needs 61 Interview guides 62 Observation forms 63 Data Collection Procedures 65 Observation 65 Collecting teaching materials and the GEPT samples 66 Interviews with administrators 67 Students’ Questionnaire 1 and 2 (SQ1 and 2) and follow-up interviews 67 The Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) and follow-up interviews 69 Interviews with students’ future employers 70 Data Analysis Procedures 70 Analysis of the questionnaire data 71 Scoring of the Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) 71 Scoring of Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) 71 Statistical analysis of the TQ and SQ1 72 Students’ Questionnaire 2 (SQ2) 72 Analysis of the interview data 72 Interview data on washback and stakes 73 Interview data on language needs 73 Analysis of the observation data 75 Analysis of the GEPT and teaching materials 75 Chapter Summary 75 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS: WASHBACK ON TEACHING 77 Washback of the English Exit Exam on Teaching 77 Evidence from the interview data 77 Teachers’ selection for their teaching materials 77 Teachers’ delivery of test-taking strategies and GEPT related information 79 Teachers’ worries about their students’ performance 80 Limited superficial washback on teaching 81 Summary 82 Evidence from the observation data 82 Teacher A2’s Freshman English 83 Teacher A3’s Sophomore Aural-oral English 83 Teacher A6’s English Tutorial (make-up course) 84 Teacher B1’s Intermediate English and Practice (Elementary) 84 Teacher B2’s Freshman English(Advanced 3) 85 Teacher B3’s Sophomore English and Practice (Advanced 1) 85 Teacher B4’s Freshman English (Intermediate 1) 86 Teacher B4’ and B6’s Practical English (make-up course) 86 Summary 87 Evidence from the teaching and testing materials 87 School A’s teaching and testing materials 88 School B’s teaching and testing materials 88 Analysis and findings 90 Summary 92 Evidence from the Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) survey data 92 Summary 96 Synthesis of the findings 96 Mediating Factors for Washback on Teaching 97 Common ground for the limited washback on teaching 97 Teachers’ doubts about “testing leading teaching” 98 Teachers’ concerns about students’ individual difference 98 Little interference in teaching from school administration 99 Summary 100 Investigation of possible mediating factors 100 Top-down external pressure 101 Teacher’ perceived external pressure via administrative experience 104 Internal factors to affect washback on teaching 106 Teachers’ and administrators’ beliefs about the purposes of testing 106 Teachers’ perceived teaching roles 109 Teachers’ beliefs about the best teaching method 110 Macro factors 111 Summary 114 Chapter Summary 115 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS: WASHBACK ON LEARNIING 116 Washback of the English Exit Exam on Learning 116 Evidence from the interview data 116 Too difficult a goal to accomplish 117 Waiting until the last minute to boost scores 117 Low motivation for taking the GEPT 119 Summary 120 Evidence from Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) survey data 120 Summary 123 Synthesis of the findings 124 Mediating Factors for Washback on Teaching 125 Underlying problems with students’ English in the TVE system 125 Students’ general low achievement in English 125 Discrepancies between high school and vocational high school graduates 126 Socio-economic status and English proficiency 128 Quantitative evidence 128 Limitations of college English education 128 Summary 129 Investigation of possible mediating factors 130 Evidence from the interview data 130 Students’ perceived external pressure 130 Internal factors to affect washback on learning 132 Other micro and macro factors 136 Summary 140 Evidence from Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) survey data 141 Students’ perceived impact of the English exit exam on their out-of-school practice 142 Students’ perceived impact of the English exit exam on their efforts 143 Students’ worries about the graduation benchmark 143 Summary 144 Synthesis of the findings 145 Chapter Summary 146 CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS: STAKES AND STATUS 147 Purposes of the English Benchmark Policy for Graduation 147 Administrators’ and teachers’ views of the graduation benchmark policy 148 A benchmark set to meet problematic proficiency descriptions 148 Quantitative evidence 149 A “backdoor” as a necessary evil 150 Students’ views of the make-up course 151 The “cons” of a make-up course as a backdoor 152 The “pros” of a make-up course as a backdoor 153 The actual intention behind the policy 154 Administrators: The GEPT used for management purposes 154 Teachers: The GEPT used as an incentive for learning 155 Students: Taking the GEPT to fulfill social expectations 158 Some negative voices from students 158 Summary 160 Perceived Stakes and Status of the Graduation Benchmark Policy 161 Teachers’ perceived stakes and status of the graduation benchmark policy 161 Analysis of the interview data 161 Summary 163 Analysis of the Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) survey data 163 Summary 165 Synthesis of the findings 166 Students’ perceived stakes and status of the graduation benchmark policy 166 Analysis of the interview data 166 Not fatal to fail the test 166 An open backdoor 167 Unawareness of the related rewarding policy 169 Less effort in the exit exam than in the College Entrance Exam 169 An additional finding 170 Summary 171 Analysis of the Students’ Questionnaire 1 (SQ1) survey data 171 Summary 173 Synthesis of the findings 173 Chapter Summary 173 CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS: LANGUAGE NEEDS 176 Overview of Students’ English Language Needs 176 Students’ actual English language needs in college and the job market 176 Analysis of the Students’ Questionnaire 2 (SQ2) survey data 177 Analysis of the interview data with students’ future employers 183 Perceived students’ English language needs in the job market 186 Overview of the EFL Higher Education and Graduation Benchmark Requirement 188 EFL higher Education at both schools 188 Analysis of the observation and interview data for the required courses and their teaching materials 189 Analysis of the testing materials for the required courses 190 Graduation benchmark requirement for both schools 192 Analysis of the GEPT old tests 192 Analysis of the observation data in the make-up course and their teaching and testing materials 193 Comparison Across Students’ English Language Needs, EFL Higher Education and Graduation Benchmark Requirement 193 Chapter Summary 199 CHAPTER EIGHT: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 202 Discussion of the Results and Analysis 202 Research Question One: What is the washback of the English exit exam on college teachers and students? Is the washback affected by any mediating factors? 202 Research Question Two: How do college teachers and students perceive the stakes and status of the graduation benchmark policy? Is the washback of the English exit exam influenced by their perceptions of the stakes or status of the graduation benchmark policy? 208 Research Question Three: Does the EFL higher education, as well as the graduation benchmark requirement, meet students’ English language needs? 210 Theoretical Implications 211 Pedagogical Implications 214 Limitations of the Present Study 219 Suggestions for Future Studies 220 Concluding Remarks 221 REFERENCES 224 Appendix A Table of approximate score comparability 235 Appendix B Teachers’ Questionnaire (English Version) 236 Appendix C Teachers’ Questionnaire (Chinese Version) 241 Appendix D Students’ Questionnaire 1 (English Version) 246 Appendix E Students’ Questionnaire 1 (Chinese Version) 251 Appendix F Students’ Questionnaire 2 (English Version) 256 Appendix G Students’ Questionnaire 2 (Chinese Version) 263 Appendix H Interview Guide for Teachers 271 Appendix I Interview Guide for Students 274 Appendix J Interview Guide for Administrators 277 Appendix K Interview Guide for Future Employers 279 Appendix L Observation form for required English course 282 Appendix M Observation form for the make-up course 284 Appendix N Letter to teachers requesting observation 286 Appendix O Consent form for teachers to be observed 288 Appendix P Observation schedule 289 Appendix Q Letter to administrators requesting interviews 290 Appendix R Consent form for participants to be interviewed 291 Appendix S Participants’ background information 292 Appendix T Letter to students to be interviewed 294 Appendix U Letter to teachers requesting interviews 295 Appendix V Letter to students’ future employers requesting interviews 296 Appendix W Samples of School A and School B’s exams and quizzes 297 Appendix X Teacher participants’ background information for the TQ 300 Appendix Y Student participants’ background information for SQ1 and SQ2 301 Appendix Z Tables of TLU task characteristics 303

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