研究生: |
林家帆 Jia-Fan Lin |
---|---|
論文名稱: |
菊池氏龜殼花的食性及偏好 Food habits and prey chemical preference of Taiwan mountain pit-viper(Trimeresurus gracilis) |
指導教授: |
杜銘章
Tu, Ming-Chung |
學位類別: |
碩士 Master |
系所名稱: |
生命科學系 Department of Life Science |
論文出版年: | 2005 |
畢業學年度: | 93 |
語文別: | 中文 |
論文頁數: | 77 |
中文關鍵詞: | 菊池氏龜殼花、食性、棉花棒測試法、化學氣味偏好 |
英文關鍵詞: | Trimeresurus gracilis、food habits、cotton swab test、chemical preference |
論文種類: | 學術論文 |
相關次數: | 點閱:234 下載:14 |
分享至: |
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報 |
摘要
為了瞭解台灣特有種蛇類菊池氏龜殼花的食性,我蒐集152隻蛇的胃內含物,有胃內含物的比例是18.4 %,88.5 %的獵物由頭部被消化,獵物與蛇的體重比為0.084~0.807,獵物重與蛇的吻肛長成正相關。將排遺及胃內含物合併分析 (prey items = 107),其獵物種類為哺乳類 (33 %)、爬行類 (32 %) 及兩生類 (7 %),屬於次級獵物的節肢動物 (25 %),另有3 %未鑑定出。由食性資料可知成蛇的獵物多為哺乳類,未成熟蛇的獵物多為蜥蜴類及兩生類,攝食內溫動物的個體其吻肛長明顯大於攝食外溫動物的個體,因此由幼體到成體具有食性轉變的現象。成蛇的獵物多為哺乳類 (41.4 %),但雌性成體明顯比雄性成體攝食較多體型較大的齧齒類,可看出食物組成在性別上的差異。
暸解其食性組成後,使用前人的棉花棒測試法 (Cotton swab test) 進一步檢測 (1) 新生幼蛇是否會辨別獵物氣味 (2) 新生幼蛇對獵物氣味的偏好是否不同?結果發現新生幼蛇能分辨獵物 (台灣蜓蜥) 及非獵物 (雙線蛞蝓) 的氣味,且顯著偏好台灣蜓蜥的氣味。我認為視覺對蛇類的捕食行為也很重要,因此設計一動態棉花棒測試法,並與靜態的棉花棒測試法比較,結果顯示動態棉花棒較能檢測成蛇對氣味的偏好,並使用此法再檢測新生幼蛇、亞成蛇及成蛇對獵物氣味是否有不同偏好?我選用七種獵物氣味進行偏好測試,分別是哺乳類:台灣森鼠及台灣長尾鼩,兩生類:阿里山山椒魚及梭德氏赤蛙,蜥蜴類:台灣蜓蜥、麗紋石龍子及雪山草蜥。結果顯示成蛇偏好兩生類與哺乳類的氣味勝於蜥蜴類的氣味,其中最偏好阿里山山椒魚的氣味;亞成蛇偏好台灣蜓蜥的氣味,其次為阿里山山椒魚;新生幼蛇偏好台灣蜓蜥的氣味,其次為麗紋石龍子的氣味。結果可知菊池氏龜殼花由幼體到成體偏好不同獵物氣味,且幼體對氣味偏好的結果與野外食性相符,成體及亞成體則否。
Abstract
I checked the stomach contents of Taiwan mountain pit-viper (Trimeresurus gracilis), an endemic species, and found only 28 (18.4 %, N = 152 ) snakes contained preys. Among these, 88.5 % preys were swallowed head-first. Prey-predator mass ratios ranged from 0.084 - 0.807, and prey mass was positively correlated with predator snout-vent length. When I combined the stomach contents and fecal remains, I identified 107 preys including 33 % mammals, 32 % reptiles, 7 % amphibians, 25 % arthropods (probably secondary prey) and 3 % unidentified preys. Mature snakes often ate mammals while immature snakes ate lizards and amphibians. The snout-vent length of individuals that consumed endothermic preys were significantly larger than those that consumed ectotherms. There was an ontogenetic dietary shift. Adult snakes preyed primary on mammals (41.4 %). Adult females preyed most frequently on rodents (45.4 %) whereas adult males preyed most frequently on insectivores (59.3 %). There was a dietary difference between sexes.
I used cotton swab smeared with prey scents to determine whether the newborn T. gracilis can discriminate prey chemical cues. I also checked whether these snakes preferred some of these prey scents than others. A greater chemosensory response to the scent of skink than to that of slug indicated that T. gracilis was able to discriminate the prey chemical cues. Newborn snakes also showed a stronger response to Sphenomorphus taiwanensis scent than other prey scents. In rattlesnakes, visual cue plays an important role in eliciting a successful predatory strike. I designed a moving cotton swab method and compared it with stationary cotton swab method. I found moving cotton swab method was a better way to test the prey chemical preference especially for adult snakes. Then, I used the moving swab method to test whether neonates, sub-adult and adult snakes preferred different prey chemical cues. I presented chemical stimuli of seven preys that coexist with these snakes including mammals: Apodemus semotus and Soriculus fumidus, amphibians: Rana sauteri and Hynobius arisanesis, lizards: Takydormus hsuehshanesis, Sphenomorphus taiwanensis and Eumeces elegans. I found adult snakes preferred scents of amphibians and mammals than scents of lizards, and they liked the scent of Hynobius arisanesis mostly. Sub-adult preferred the scent of Sphenomorphus taiwanensis mostly and secondly the scent of Hynobius arisanesis. Neonates preferred the scent of Sphenomorphus taiwanensis mostly and secondly the scent of Eumeces elegans. There was an ontogenetic prey chemical preference shift in T. gracilis. The prey scent preference of neonates corresponded to their natural diets, but the preference of adults and sub-adults didn’t.
參考文獻
朱家蔚。2003。台灣兩種蝮蛇之蛇毒對其食物消化吸收的影響。國立台灣大學動物研究所碩士論文。台北。
呂光洋,陳世煌和陳賜隆。1989。台灣爬蟲動物---陸棲蛇類。148頁。台灣省教育廳。台中。
呂光洋,杜銘章和向高士。2002。過渡的世界---台灣兩棲爬行圖鑑。242-243頁。中華民國自然生態保育協會。台北。
杜銘章。1987。蘭嶼闊尾青斑海蛇之研究。國立中山大學海洋生物研究所碩士論文。高雄。
杜銘章。2004。蛇類大驚奇。222頁。遠流出版社。台北。
李文傑和呂光洋。1996。台灣地區蛇類食性的初探。師大生物學報 31:119-12頁。
林華慶,黃國峰和盧致華。1995。台灣幾種蛇類的食性記錄。 NOW 3:19-21頁。
林嘉貞。2001。菊池氏龜殼花溫度選擇行為之研究. 國立台灣師範大學生物學系碩士論文。台北。
侯雅柔。1996。台灣四十種陸生哺乳動物之背部剛毛鑑識。國立屏東技術學院森林資源技術系。實務專題報告。屏東。
黃思綿。2002。台灣產龜殼花屬蛇類之溫度耐受度。國立台灣師範大學生物學系碩士論文。台北。
趙爾密,黃美華和宗愉等編。1998。中國動物誌---爬行綱第三卷,有鱗目蛇亞目。442-452頁。科學出版社。北京。
Agrimi, U. and L. Luiselli. 1992. Feeding strategies of the viper Vipera ursinii ursinii (Reptilia: Viperidae) in the Apennines. Herpetological Journal 2:37-42.
Alving, W. R., and K. V. Kardong. 1996. The role of the vomeronasal organ in rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis oreganus) predatory behavior. Brain Behavior and Evolution 48:165-172.
Amo, L., P. Lo'pez, and J. Martin. 2004. Chemosensory recognition of its lizard prey by the ambush smooth snake, Coronella austriaca. Journal of Herpetology 38:451-454.
Andrade, D. V., and A. S. Abe. 1999. Relationship of venom ontogeny and diet in Bothrops. Herpetologica 55:200-204.
Aoki, B., and Tanaka R. 1941. The rats and mice of Formosa illustrated. Memoris of the faculty of science and agriculture taihoku imperial university. 23 (4). Zoology 13:121-191.
Arnold, S. J. 1977. Polymorphism and geographic variation in the feeding behavior of garter snake Thamnophis elegans. Science 197:676-678.
Arnold, S. J. 1978. Some effects of early experience on feeding responses in the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis. Animal Behaviour 26:455-462.
Arnold, S. J. 1981a. Behabioral variation in natural populations. I. Phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations between chemoreceptive responses to prey in the garter snake, Thamnophis elegans. Evolution 35:489-509.
Arnold, S. J. 1981b. The microevolution of feeding behavior. Pages 409-453 in A. Kamil and T. Sargent, editors. Foraging behavior: ecological, ethological and psychological approaches. Garland STPM. New York.
Arnold, S. J. 1992. Behavioural variation in natural populations. VI. Prey responses by two species of garter snakes in three regions of sympatry. Animal Behaviour 44:705-719.
Arnold, S. J. 1993. Foraging theory and prey-size-predator-size relations in snakes. Pages 87-115 in R. A. Seigel and J. T. Collins, editors. Snakes: ecology and behavior. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Bellairs, A. 1970. Nervous system, psychology and sense organs. Pages 365-372. in R. Carrington, L. H. Matthews, and J. Z. Young. The Life of Reptiles 2. Universe Books. New York.
Buning, T. D. C. 1983. Termal sensitivity as a specialization for prey capture and feeding in snakes. American Zoologist 23:363-375.
Burghardt, G. M. 1966. Stimulus control of the prey attack response in native garer snakes. Psychonomic Science 4:37-38.
Burghardt, G. M. 1967. Chemical-cue preferences of inexperienced snakes: comparative aspects. Science 157:718-721.
Burghardt, G. M. 1968. Chemical preference studies on newborn snakes of three sympatric species of Natrix. Copeia 1968:732-737.
Burghardt, G. M. 1971. Chemical-cue preferences of newborn snakes: influence of prenatal maternal experience. Science. 171:921-923.
Burghardt, G. M. 1993. The comparative imperative:genetics and ontogeny of chemoreceptive prey response in natricine snakes. Brain Behavior and Evolution 41:138-146.
Burghardt, G. M. 1990. Chemically mediated predation in vertebrates: diversity, ontogeny, and information. Pages 475-499 in D. McDonald, D. Muller-Schwarze, and S. Natynczuk, editors. Chemical signals in vertebrates. Oxford University. Oxford.
Burghardt, G. M., D. G. Layne, and L. Konigsberg. 2000. The genetics of dietary experience in a restricted natural population. Psychological Science 11:69-72.
Burghardt, G. M., and J. P. Abeshaheen. 1971. Response to chemical stimuli of prey in newly hayched snakes of the genus elaphe. Animal Behaviour 19:486-489.
Campbell J. A., and A. Solorzano. 1992. The distribution, variation, and natural history of the middle American montane pitviper. Pages 223-250 in J. A. Campbell and E. D. Brodie Jr., editors. Biology of the Pit Vipers. Selva. Tyler, Texas.
Chiszar, D., and C. W. Radcliffe. 1977. Absence of prey-chemical preferences in newborn rattlesnakes (Crotalus cerastes, C. enyo, and C. viridis). Behavioral Biology 21:146-150.
Chiszar, D. , C. W. Radcliffe, B. O’Connell, and H. M. Smith. 1982. Analysis of the behavioral sequence emitted by rattlesnakes during feeding episodes. II. Duration of strike-induced chemosensory searching in rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis, C. enyo). Behavioral and Neural Biology 34:261-270.
Chiszar, D., C. W. Radcliffe, and K. M. Scudder. 1977. Analysis of the behavioral sequence emitted by rattlesnakes during feeding episodes. Behavioral Biology 21:418-425.
Chiszar, D., K. Scudder, and L. Knight. 1976. Rate of tongue flicking by garter snakes (Thamnophis radix haydeni) and rattlesnakes (Crotalus v. viridis, Sistrurus catenatus tergeminus, and Sistrurus catenatus edwardsi) during prolonged exposure to food ordors. Behavioral Biology 18:273-283.
Chiszar, D., and K. M. Scudder. 1980. Chemosensory searching by rattlesnakes during predatory episodes. Pages 125-139 in D. Muller-Schwarze and R. M. Silverstein, editors. Chemical Signals: vertebrates and aquatic invertebrates. Plenum. New York.
Chiszar, D., R. K. K. Lee, H. M. Smith and C. W. Radcliffe. 1992. Searching behaviors by rattlesnakes following predatory strikes. Pages 369-382 in J. A. Campbell and E. D. Brodie Jr., editors. Biology of the Pit Vipers. Selva. Tyler, Texas.
Chiszar, D., W. Lukas, and H. M. Smith. 1997. Response to rodent saliva by two species of rodentiophagous snakes. Journal of Chemical Ecology 23:829-836.
Churchfield, S. 1994. Food niche overlap and ecological seperation in a multi-species community of shrew in the Siberian taiga. Journal of Zoology (London) 234:105-124.
Clark, R. W. 2002. Diet of Timber Rrattlesnake, Crotalus horridus. Journal of Herpetology 36:494-499.
Clark, R. W. 2004. Timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) use chemical cues to select ambush sites. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30:607-617.
Cobb, V. A. 2004. Diet and prey size of the Flathead Snake, Tantilla gracilis. Copeia 2:397-402.
Cooper, W. E., Jr. 1998a. Evaluation of swab and related tests as a bioassay for assessing responses by squamate reptiles to chemical stimuli. Journal of Chemical Ecology 24:841-886.
Cooper, W. E., Jr. 1998b. Prey chemical discrimination indicated by tongue-flicking in Eublepharid Gecko Coleonyx variegatus. The Journal of Experimental Zoology 281:21-25.
Cooper, W. E., Jr. 2000. Correspondence between diet and food chemical discriminations by omnivorous geckos (Rhacodactylus). Journal of Chemical Ecology 26:755-763.
Cooper, W. E., Jr., and G. M. Burdhardt. 1990. A coparative analysis of scoring methods for chemical discrimination of prey by squamate reptiles. Journal of Chemical Ecology 16.
Cooper, W. E., Jr. 1994. Prey chemical discrimination, foraging mode, and phylogeny. Pages 95-116 in L. J. Vitt and E. R. Pianka, editors. Lizard Ecology. Princeton University. New Jersey.
Cooper, W. E., Jr., G. M. Burghardt, and W. S. Brown. 2000. Behavioural responses by hatchling racers (Coluber constrictor) from two geographically distinct populations to chemical stimuli from potential prey and predators. Amphibia-Reptilia 21:103-115.
Creer, S., W. H. Chou, A. Malhotra, and R. S. Thorpe. 2002. Offshore insular variation in the diet of the taiwanese bamboo viper Trimeresurus stejnegeri (schmidt). Zoological Science 19:907-913.
Czaplicki, J. A., and R. H. Porter. 1974. Visual cue mediating the selection of goldfish (Carassius auratus) by two species of Natrix. Journal of Herpetology 8:129-134.
Daltry, J. C., W. Wuster, and R. S. Thorpe. 1998. Intraspecific variation in the feeding ecology of the cortaline snake Calloselasma rhodostoma in Southeast Asia. Journal of Herpetology 32:198-205.
De Queiroz, A., C. Henke, and H. M. Smith. 2001. Geographic variation and ontogenetic change in the diet of the mexican pacific lowlands Garter snake, Thamnophis validus. Copeia 4:1034-1042.
Downes S., and R. Shine. 1998. Sedentary snakes and gullible geckos: predator-prey coevolution in nocturnal rock-dwelling reptiles. Animal Behaviour 55:1373-1385.
Downes, S. 1999. Prey ordor influences retreat-site selection by naive Broadheaded Snakes (Hoplocephalus bungaroides). Journal of Herpetology 33:156-159.
Drummond, H. 1979. Stimulus control of amphibian predation in the Northern water snake, Nerodia sipedon. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 50:18-44.
Drummond, H. 1985. The role of vision in the predatory behaviour of natricine snakes. Animal Behaviour 33:206-215.
Duvall, D., D. Chiszar, W. K. Hayes, J. K. Leonhardt, and M. J. Goode. 1990. Chemical and behavioral ecology of foraging in prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis viridis). Journal of Chemical Ecology 16:87-101.
Duvall, D., K. M. Scudder, and D. Chiszar. 1980. Rattlesnake predatory behaviour: mediation of prey discrimination and release of swallowing by cues arising from envenomated mice. Animal Behaviour 28:674-683.
Fitch, H. S. 1999. A kansas snake community: composition and changes over 50 years. Pages 9-24. Krieger. Malabar, Florida.
Ford, N. B., and G. M. Burghardt 1993. Perceptual mechanisms and the behavioral ecology of snakes. Pages 87-115 in R. A. Seigel and J. T. Collins, editors. Snakes: ecology and behavior. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Forsman A., and L. E. Lindell. 1993. The advantage of a big head:swallowing performance in adders, Vipera berus. Functional Ecology 7:183-189.
Forsman, A., and L. E. Lindell. 1997. Responses of a predator to variation in prey abundance: survival and emigration of adders in relation to vole density. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75:1099-1108.
Fuchs, J. L., and G. M. Burghardt. 1971. Effects of early feeding experience on the responses of garter snakes to food chemicals. Learning and Motivation 2:271-279.
Gillingham, J. C., and D. L. Clark. 1981. An analysis of prey-searching behavior in the Western diamondback rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox. Behavioral and Neural Biology 32:235-240.
Gove, D., and G. M. Burghardt. 1983. Context-correlated parameters of snake and lizard tongue-flicking. Animal Behaviour 31:718-723.
Graves, B. M., and D. Duvall. 1985. Avomic prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) fail to attack rodent prey. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 67:161-166.
Green, B. D., J. R. Dixon, and J. M. Mueller. 1994. Feeding ecology of the concho water snake, Nerodia harteri paucimaculata. Journal of Herpetology 28:165-172.
Greenbaum, E., N. Galeva, and M. Jorgensen. 2003. Venom Variation and Chemoreception of the Viperid Agkistrodon contortrix: Evidence for Adaptation? Journal of Chemical Ecology 29:1741-1755.
Greene, H. W. 1983. Dietary correlates of origin and radiation of snakes. American Zoologist 23:431-441.
Greene, H. W. 1992. The ecological and behavioral context of pitviper evolution. Pages 107-117 in J. A. Campbell and E. D. Brodie Jr., editors. Biology of the Pit Vipers. Selva. Tyler, Texas.
Green, H. W. 1997. Diet and feeding. Pages 51-73. Snakes: the evolution of mystery in nature. University of California. Berkeley. Los Angeles. London.
Greene, H. W., and J. A. Rodriguez-Robles. 2003. Feeding ecology of the California mountain kingsnake, Lampropeltis zonata (Colubridae). Copeia 2:308-314.
Gregory, P. T., and L. A. Isaac. 2004. Food habits of the Grass Snake in Southeastern England: Is Natrix natrix a generalist predator? Journal of Herptology 38:88-95.
Halpern, M. 1992. Nasal chemical senses in reptiles: structure and function. Pages 423-523 in C. Gans, and D. Crews, editors. Biology of the Reptilia 18. University of Chicago. Chicago and London.
Haverly, J. E., and K. V. Kardong. 1996. Sensory deprivation effects on the predatory behavior of the rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis oreganus. Copeia 2:419-428.
Hayes, W. K. 1991. Ontogeny of striking, prey-handling and envenomation behavior of prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus-v-viridis). Toxicon 29:867-875.
Hayes, W. K., and D. Duvall. 1991. A field study of prairie rattlesnake predatory strike. Herpetologica 47:78-81.
Head, M. L., J. S. Keogh, and P. Doughty. 2002. Experimental Evidence of an Age-Specific Shift in Chemical Detection of Predators in a Lizard. Journal of Chemical Ecology.
Heatwole, H., and N. S. Poran. 1995. Resistances of sympatric and allopatric eels to sea snake venoms. Copeia 1:136-147. Henderson, R. W., M. H. Binder, and G. M. Burghardt. 1983. Responses of neonate Hispaniolan vine snakes (Uromacer frenatus) to prey extract. Herpetologica 39:75-77.
Henderson, R. W. 1993. Foraging and diet in west Indian Corallus enydris (Serpentes:Boidae). Journal of Herpetology 27:24-28.
Himes, J. G. 2002. The role of the midland water snake, Nerodia sipedon (Serpentes: Colubridae), as a predator: foraging behavior, kin recognition, and the
response of prey. Amphibia-Reptilia 23:333-342.
Hirai, T. 2004. Dietary shifts of frog eating snakes in response to seasonal changes in prey availability. Journal of Herpetology 38:455-460.
Holycross, A. T., and S. P. Mackessy. 2002. Variation in the diet of Sistrurus catenatus (Massasauga), with emphasis on Sistrurus catenatus edwardsii (Desert Massasauga). Journal of Herpetology 36:454-464.
Houston, D., and R. Shine. 1993. Sexsual dimorphism and niche divergence:feeding habits of Arafura filesnake. Journal of Animal Ecology 62:737-748.
Keegan, H. L. and T. Matsui. 1964. Observation on the pit viper Trimeresurus gracilis Oshima, 1920. Bull. Inst. Zool., Academia Sinica 3:9-18.
Kjaergaard, J. 1981. A method for examination of stomach content in live snakes and some information on feeding habits in common viper(Vipera berus)in Denmark, Natura Jutlandica 19:45-48.
Lee, S. A. C. a. L. L. 1997. Food habits of three carnivore species (Viverricula indica, Herpestes urva, and Melogale moschata) in Fushan Forest, northern Taiwan. Journal of Zoology (London) 243:71-79.
Lillywhite, H. B. 1982. Cannibalistic carrion ingestion by the rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis. Journal of Herpetology 16:95.
Lind, A. J., and H. H. Welsh., Jr. 1994. Ontogenetic changes in foraging behaviour and habitat use by the Oregon garter snake, Thamnophis atratus hydrophilus. Animal Behaviour 48:1261-1273.
Litvaitis J. A. 2000. Investigating food habits of terrestrial vertebrates. Pages 165-190 in L. Boitani and T. K. Fuller, editors. Research Techniques in Animal Ecology. Columbia University. New York.
Luiselli, L. 1996. Food habits of an alpine population of the Snad Viper (Vipera ammodytes). Jouranl of Herpetology 30:92-94.
Luiselli, L. 2003. Do snakes exhibit shifts in feeding ecology associated with the presence or absence of potwntial competitors? A case study from trophical Africa. Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:228-236.
Luiselli, L., and M. Capula. 1997. Food habits, growth rates, and reproductive biology of grass snakes, Natrix natrix (Colubridae) in the Italian Alps. Jouranl of Zoology (London) 241:371-380.
Luiselli, L., and M. Capula., and R. Shine. 1996. Reproductive output, costs of reproduction, and ecology of the smooth snake, Coronella austriaca, in the eastern Italian Alps. Oecologia 106:100-110.
Lyman-Henley, L. P., and G. M. Burghardt. 1995. Diet, litter, and sex effects on chemical prey preference, growth, and site selection in two sympatric species of Thamnophis. Herpetological Monographs 9:140-160.
MacKessy, S. P., K. Williams, and K. G. Ashon. 2003. Ontogenetic variation in venom composition and diet of Crotalus oreganus concolor: A case of venom paedomorphosis? Copeia 4:769-782.
Malhotra, A., and R. S. Thorpe. 2000. A phylogeny of the Trimeresurus group of pit vipers: new evidence from a mitochondrial gene tree. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 16:199-211.
Martins M., O. A. V. Marques and I. Sazima. 2002. Ecological and Phylogenetic correlates of feeding habits in neotropical pitvipers of the genus Bothrops. Pages 307-328 in G. W. Schuett, M. Hoggren, M. E. Douglas and H. W. Greene, editors. Biology of the Vipers. Eagle Mountain. LC.
Mattison, C. 1995. Feeding. Pages 95-117. The Encycopedia of Snakes. Cassell Paperback. London.
Mitchell, J. C. 1986. Cannibalism in reptiles: a worldwide review. Herpetological Circular 15:1-37.
Morafka, D. J., E. K. Spangenberg, and V. A. Lance. 2000. Neonatology of reptiles. Herpetological Monographs 14:353-370.
Mori, A., and H. Moriguchi. 1988. Food habits of the snakes in Japan: a critical review. The Snake 22:98-113.
Mori A., M. Toda, and H. Ota. 2002. Winter activity of the Hime-Habu (Ovophis okinavenisis) in the humid subtropics: foraging on breeding anurans at low temperatures. Pages 307-328 in G. W. Schuett, M. Hoggren, M. E. Douglas and H. W. Greene, editors. Biology of the Vipers. Eagle Mountain. LC.
Mou, S. H. 1970. Food of the common venomous snakes of Taiwan. Herpetologica 26:45-48.
Mullin, S. J., and R. J. Cooper. 1998. The foraging ecology of the gray rat snake (elaphe obsoleta spiloides)-visual stimuli facilitate location of arboreal prey. The American Midland Naturalist 140:397-401.
Mushinsky, H. R., J. J. Hebrard, and D. S. Vodopich. 1982. Ontogeny of water snake foraging ecology. Ecology 63:1624-1629.
Mushinsky, H. R., and K. H. Lotz. 1980. Chemoreceptive responses of two sympatric water snakes to extracts of commonly ingested prey species:ontogenetic and ecological considerations. Journal of Chemical Ecology 6:523-535.
Mushinsky, H. R. 1987. Foraging ecology. Pages 302-334 in R. A. Seigel, J. T. Collins and S. S. Novak, editors. Snakes: ecology and evolutionary biology. Macmillan. New York.
Neter, J., M. H. Kutner, C. J. Nachtsheim, and W. Wasserman. 1999. Repeated measure and related designs. Pages 1176-1184. Applied linear statistical models. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Nogueira, C., R. J. Sawaya, and M. Martins. 2003. Ecology of the pitviper, Bothrops moojeni, in the Brazilian Cerrado. Journal of Herpetology 37:653-659.
Perrin, M. R., and T. Bodbijl. 2001. Diet and prey selection of the gaboon adder in Zululand (KwaZulu-Natal), South Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 31:127-134.
Pianka E. R. 1973. The structure of lizard communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:53-74.
Polis, G. A. ,and C. A. Myers. 1985. A survey of intraspecific predation among amphibians and reptiles. Journal of Herpetology 19:99-107.
Pough, F. H. 1980. The advantages of ectothermy for tetrapods. The American Naturalist 115:92-112.
Pough, F. H., and J. D. Grove. 1983. Specializations of the body form and food habits of snakes. American Zoologist 23:443-454.
Pough, F. H, R. M. Andrews, J. E. Cadle, M. L. Crump, A. H. Savitzky, and K. D. Wells. 1998. Pages 397-492 in Foraging ecology and interspecific interactions. Herpetology. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Reinert, H. K. 1993. Habitat Selection in snakes. Pages 211-215 in R. A. Seigel and J. T. Collins, editors. Snakes: ecology and behavior. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Rodriguez-Robles, J. A. 2002. Feeding ecology of North American gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer, Colubridae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 77:165-183.
Rodriguez-Robles, J. A., and H. W. Greene. 1999. Food habits of the long-nosed snake (Rhinocheilus lecontei), a 'specialist' predator?. Jouranl of Zoology (London) 248:489-499.
Rodriguez-Robles, J. A., C. J. Bell, and H. W. Greene. 1999a. Food habits of glossy snake, Arizona elegans, with comparisons to the diet of sympatric long-nosed snakes, Rhinocheilus lecontei. Journal of Herpetology 33:87-92.
Rodriguez-Robles, J. A., C. J. Bell, and H. W. Greene. 1999b. Gape size and evolution of diet in snakes: feeding ecology of erycine boas. Journal of Zoology (London) 248:49-58.
Roth, E. D., P. G. May, and T. M. Farrell. 1999. Pigmy rattlesnakes use frog-derived chemical cues to select foraging sites. Copeia 3:772-774.
Saint-Girons, H. 1980. Selective modifications in the diet of vipers(Reptilia:Viperidae)during growth. Amphibia-Reptilia 1:127-136.
Salamao, M., S. M. A. Santos, and G. Puorto. 1995. Activity pattern of Crotalus durissus (Viperidae, Crotalinae):feeding, reproduction, and snakebite. Studies of Neotropical Fauna and Environment 30:101-106.
Santos, X., J. Gonza'lez-Solis, and G. A. Llorente. 2000. Variation in the diet of the viperine snake Natrix maura in relation to prey avalability. Ecography 23:185-192.
Saviozzi, P., and M. A. L. Zuffi. 1997. An integrated approach to the study of the duet of Vipera aspis. Herpetologica 28:23-24.
Savitzky, B. A., and G. M. Burghardt. 2000. Ontogeny of predatory behavior in the aquatic specialist snake, Nerodia Rhombifer, during the first year of life. Herpetological Monographs 14:401-419.
Sazimai, I. 1992. Natural history of the jararaca pitviper, Bothrops jararaca, in Southeastern Brazil. Pages 199-216 in J. A. Campbell and E. D. Brodie Jr., editors. Biology of the Pit Vipers. Selva. Tyler, Texas.
Schulz, K-D. 1996. A Monograph of the Colubrid Snakes of the Genus Elaphe Fitzinger. Pages 51-56. Koeltz Scientific Books. Czech Republic.
Schwenk, K. 1995. Of tongues and noses:chemoreception in lizards and snakes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10:7-12.
Seigel, R. A., and N. B. Ford. 1987. Reproductive ecology. Pages 210-227 in R. A. Seigel, J. T. Collins and S. S. Novak, editors. Snakes: ecology and evolutionary biology. Macmillan. New York.
Seigel, R. A. 1992. Ecology of a specializes predators: Regina grahami in Missouri. Journal of Herpetology 26:32-37.
Shine, R. 1980. Ecology of the Australian death adder, Acanthophis antarcticus (Elapidae): evidence for convergence with the Viperidae. Herpetologica 36:281-289.
Shine, R. 1986. Ecology of a low-energy specialist: food habits and reproductive biology of the arafura filesnake (Acrochordidae). Copeia 2:424-437.
Shine, R. 1991a. Why do larger snakes eat larger prey? Functional Ecology 5:493-502.
Shine, R. 1991b. Intrersexual dietary divergence and the evolution of sexual dimorphisn in snakes. The American Naturalist 138:103-122.
Shine, R., G. V. Haagner, W. R. Branch, P. S. Harlow, and J. K. Webb. 1996. Natural history of the African shieldnose snake Aspidelaps scutatus (Serpentes, Elapidae). Journal of Herpetology 30:361-366.
Shine, R., P. S. Harlow, J. S. Keogh, and Boeadi. 1998. The influence of sex and body size on food habits of a giant tropical snake, Python reticulatus. Functional Ecology 12:248-258.
Shine, R., and T. Madsen. 1997. Prey abundance and predator reproduction: rats and pythons on a tropical Australian floodplain. Ecology 78:1078-1086.
Shine, R., and D. J. Slip. 1990. Biological aspects of the adaptive radiation of Australasian pythons (Serpentes: Boidae). Herpetologica 46:283-290.
Shine, R., and L. Sun. 2003. Attack strategy of an ambush predator:which attributes of the prey trigger a pit-viper's strike? Functional Ecology 17:340-348.
Shine, R., W. R. Branch, P. S. Harlow, and J. K. Webb. 1998. Reproductive biology and food habits of horned adders, Bitis caudalis (Viperidae) from southern Africa. Copeia 2:391-401.
Shivik, J. A., and L. Clark. 1997. Carrion seeking in brown tree snakes:importance of olfactory and visual cues. The Journal of Experimental Zoology 279:549-553.
Su Y., S. C. Fong, and M. C. Tu. 2005. The food habits of the sea snake, Laticauda semifasciata. (In press)
Tanaka, K., A. Mori, and M. Hasegawa. 2001. Apparent decoupling of prey recognition ability with prey availability in an insular snake population. Journal of Ethology 19:27-32.
Taylor, E. N. 2001. Diet of the baja california rattlesnake, Crotalus enyo(Viperidae). Copeia 2:553-555.
Teather, K. L. 1991. The relative importance of visual and chemical cues for foraging in newborn blue-striped garter snakes(Thamnophis sirtalis simulus). Behaviour 117:255-261.
Teerink, B. J. 1991. Hair of Western European Mammals: atlas and identification key. Pages 1-17. Cambridge University. Cambridge.
Theodoratus, D., and D. Chiszar. 2000. Habitat selection and prey ordor in the foraging behavior of western rattlesnakes (Cortalus Viridis). Behaviour 137:119-135.
Tu, M.-C. a. H.-Y. W., and Mung-Pei Tsai, and Mamoru Toda, and Wen-Jen Lee, and Fu-Ji Zhang, and Hidetoshi Ota. 2000. Phylogeny, taxonomy, and biogeography of th eoriental pitvipers of the genus Trmeresurus (Reptilia:Viperidae:Crotalinae):A Molecular perspective. Zoological Science 17:1147-1157.
Ulinski, P. S. 1972. Tongue movements in the common boa. Animal Behaviour 20:373-382.
Valdujo, P. H., C. Nogueira, and M. Martins. 2002. Ecology of Bothrops neuwiedi pauloensis (Serpentes:Viperidae:Cortalinae) in the Brazilian Cerrado. Journal of Herpetology 36:169-176.
Wallace, R. L., and L. V. Diller. 1990. Feeding ecology of the rattlesnake, Crotalus viridis oreganus, in Northern Idaho. Journal of Herpetology 24:246-253.
Wang, C. and Y. H. M. Wang. 1956. The reptiles of Taiwan. Quart. Journal of Taiwan Museum 9:79-80.
Waters, R. M., and G. M. Burdhardt. 2005. The interaction of food motivation and experience in the ontogeny of chemoreception in crayfish snakes. Animal Behaviour 69:363-374.
Zar J. H. 1999. Multiple Comparisions. Pages 210-214. Biostatistical Analysis. 4th. Prentice-Hall. New Jersey.