目的：本研究以引導假說，結合動作發展觀點，探討自主要求的自我控制回饋頻率與年齡差異及其交互作用對動作表現、學習與錯誤偵察能力的影響。方法：招募兒童、成人與老人共90位實驗參與者，在獲得期進行線性移動工作60次試作。實驗參與者皆接受自我控制回饋的操弄，並依各組在獲得期相對回饋頻率高低，分成相對較高頻率自我控制回饋組與相對較低頻率自我控制回饋組。依變項為動作距離絕對誤差值、錯誤估計絕對誤差值與自我控制回饋頻率。獲得期以混合設計三因子變異數（年齡頻率區間）進行分析，其中區間為重複量數；立即與延遲保留測驗以獨立樣本二因子變異數（年齡頻率）進行分析；此外，以混合設計二因子變異數分析（年齡練習期），計算獲得期的回饋頻率，其中練習期為重複量數。結果：一、在獲得期絕對誤差值上，只有年齡和區間達顯著差異，且成人優於兒童，而在獲得期的回饋頻率上，年齡與練習期的交互作用達統計顯著差異；二、在立即與延遲保留測驗的絕對誤差值和錯誤估計絕對誤差值皆顯示，年齡與回饋頻率的交互作用達統計顯著差異。結論：促進動作表現和學習的最佳自我控制回饋頻率，隨年齡而改變。建議：任何有關獲得動作技能的描述，必須考量發展的條件。

This study combined the concept of guidance hypothesis and motor development to investigate the effects of frequencies in self-controlled knowledge of results (SCKR) and age differences on motor performance, learning and error detection capability. Ninety participants were recruited from children, adults, and older adults. All participants performed a linear position task under the manipulation of SCKR consisting of 60 trials during acquisition phase. According to feedback relative frequency level of acquisition, participants were dived into higher or lower SCKR frequency groups. The dependent variables were the absolute error scores of movement distance (AE), error estimation (︱O－S｜), and the frequencies of SCKR. Mixed designed three-way ANOVA (ages  frequencies  blocks) with repeated measures on blocks during the acquisition phase was used. Independent two-way ANOVA (ages  frequencies) was used for immediate and delayed retention test. Moreover, we calculated the frequencies of acquisition phase by mixed designed two- way ANOVA (ages  practice phase) with repeated measures on practice phase. The results showed that (1) during acquisition phase, ages and blocks were significantly different (p＜.05), in which adults were better than children on AE, and the interaction of ages  practice phase was significantly different on frequencies (p＜.05); (2) in immediate and delayed retention test, the interactions of ages  frequencies were significantly different on AE and on ︱O－S｜ (p＜.05). The conclusion is the optimal frequencies of SCKR to enhance motor performance and learning change with age, and the suggestion is any description of motor skill acquisition must account for the developmental level.

方正銘、卓俊伶（2007，12月）。特定範圍結果獲知對兒童動作表現與學習的效應〔摘要〕。2007全國體育運動學術團體聯合年會暨學術研討會海報發表，臺北市。

方正銘、卓俊伶（2008，12月）。自我控制回饋頻率對老年人動作表現、學習與錯誤偵察能力的影響〔摘要〕。2008華人運動心理學學術研討會海報發表，臺北市。

方正銘、卓俊伶（印刷中）。動作表現與學習的帶寬回饋及年齡效應。臺灣運動心理學報。

林清山（1992）。心理與教育統計學。臺北市：東華。

林清山、程炳林（1995）。國中生自我調節學習因素與學習表現之關係暨自我調整的閱讀理解教學策略效果之研究。教育心理學報，28，5-58。

陳玉芬、卓俊伶（1998）。特定範圍結果獲知對高爾夫推桿動作之空間準確性與錯誤偵察的影響。體育學報，25，49-258。

張春興（1997）。教育心理學。臺北市：東華。

卓俊伶、林靜兒（2007）。動作學習的理念與實務應用。國民體育季刊，153，46-50。

賴世烱、卓俊伶（1999)。晚期兒童動作表現的性別與年齡差異。體育學報，27，43-50。

賴世烱（2000）。兒童動作表現的費茲定律檢驗及訊息處理能力的年齡效應。未出版碩士論文，國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。

黃鱗棋（1999）。注意力焦點取向在間斷動作學習策略中的角色。未出版碩士論文，國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。

葉俊良（2007）。自我控制回饋對老年人空間性動作表現、學習及錯誤估計之效應。未出版碩士論文，國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。

葉俊良、卓俊伶、林靜兒、陳重佑（2007）。自我控制回饋對動作表現、學習及錯誤估計的效應。大專體育學刊，9，23-35。

英文部分：

Aiken, L. R. (1989). Later life (3rd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Adams, J. A. (1971). A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3, 111-150.

Albertson, L. R., & Billingsley, F. F. (2001). Using strategy instruction and self-regulation to improve gifted students’ creative writing. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 12, 90-101.

Anderson, D. I., Magill, R. A., Sekiya, H., & Ryan, G. (2005). Support for an explanation of the guidance effect in motor skill learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 37, 231-238.

Annett, J. (1959). Learning a pressure under conditions of immediate and delayed knowledge of results. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, 3-15.

Annett, J. (1969). Feedback and human behaviour. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books.

Arps, G. F. (1917). A preliminary report on "work with knowledge versus work without knowledge of results". Psychological Review, 24, 449-455.

Barclay, C. R., & Newell, K. M. (1980). Children’s processing of information in motor skill acquisition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 30, 98-108.

Badan, M., Hauert, C. A., & Mounoud, P. (2000). Sequential pointing in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 75, 43-69.
Bilodeau, E. A., & Bilodeau, I. M. (1958). Variable frequency of knowledge of results and the learning of a simple skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 379-383.

Botwinick, J. (1984). Aging and behavior: A comprehensive integration of research findings (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.

Butler, R. (1987). Task-involving and ego-involving property of evaluation: Effects of different feedback conditions on motivational perceptions, interest, and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 474-482.

Chen, D. D. (2001). Trends in augmented feedback research and tips for the practitioner. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 72, 32-36.

Chen, D., & Hendrick, J. L. (1994). Interactive knowledge of results and the timing of sequential movements. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16, S40.

Chen, D. D., Hendrick, J. L., & Lidor, R. (2002). Enhancing self-controlled learning environments: The use of self-regulated feedback information. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 43, 69-86.

Chen, D., & Singer, R. N. (1992). Self-regulation and cognitive strategies in sport participation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 277-300.

Chi, M. T. H. (1977). Age differences in memory span. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, 266-281.

Chiviacowsky, S., Godinho, M., & Tani, G. (2005). Self-controlled knowledge of results: Effects of different schedules and task complexity. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 49, 277-296.

Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2002). Self-controlled feedback: Does it enhances learning because performance get feedback when they need it? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73, 408-415.

Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2005). Self-controlled feedback is effective if it is based on the learner’s performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76, 42-48.

Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., Laroque de Medeiros, F., Kaefer, A., & Tani, G. (2008). Learning benefits of self-controlled knowledge of results in 10-year-old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79, 405-410.

Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., Laroque de Medeiros, F., Kaefer, A., & Wally, R. (2008). Self-controlled feedback in 10-year-old children: Higher feedback frequencies enhance learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79, 122-127.

Cleary, T. J. & Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Self-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 185-206.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

Elwell, J. L., & Grindley, G. S. (1938). The effect of knowledge of results on learning and performance. British Journal of Psychology, 29, 39-53.

Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2006). Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gentile, A. M. (1972). A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching. Quest, 17, 3-23.

Guadagnoli, M. A., & Kohl, R. M. (2001). Knowledge of results for motor learning: Relationship between error estimation and knowledge of results frequency. Journal of Motor Behavior, 33, 217-224.

Guadagnoli, M. A., Dornier, L. A., & Tandy, R. D. (1996). Optimal length for summary knowledge of results: The influence of task-related experience and complexity. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 239-248.

Hardy, L., & Nelson, D. (1988). Self-regulation training in sport and work. Ergonomics, 31, 1573-1583.

Hogan, J., & Yanowitz, B. (1978). The role of verbal estimates of movement error in ballistic skill acquisition. Journal of Motor Behavior, 10, 133-138.

Holt, J. (1982). How children fail. New York: De Lacorte.

Janelle, C. M., Barba, D. A., Frehlich, S. G., Tennant, L. K., & Cauraugh, J. H. (1997). Maximizing performance feedback effectiveness through videotape reply and a self-controlled learning environment. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 269-279.

Janelle, C. M., Kim, J., & Singer, R. N. (1995). Subject-controlled performance feedback and learning of a closed motor skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, 627-634.

Kitsantas, A., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2002).Comparing self-regulatory process among novices, non-experts, and expert volleyball players: A microanalytic study. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 91-105.

Koestner, R., Zuckerman, M., & Koestner, J. (1987). Praise, involvement, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 383-390.

Lee, A. M., Keh, N. C., & Magill, R. A. (1993). Instructional effects of teacher feedback in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 12, 228-243.

Lee, T. D., White, M. A., & Carnahan, H. (1990). On the role of knowledge of results in motor learning: Exploring the guidance hypothesis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 22, 191-208.

Lee, T. D., & Maraj, B. K. V. (1994). Effects of bandwidth goals and bandwidth knowledge of results on motor learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65, 244-249.

Maehr, M, L., & Braskamp, L. A. (1986). The motivation factor: A theory of personal investment. London: Lexington Books.

Magill, R. A. (2007). Motor learning and control: Concepts and applications (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination. In M. G. Wade & H. T. A. Whiting (Eds.), Motor development in children : Aspects of coordination and control (pp. 341-361). Amsterdam: Martin Nijhoff.

Newell, K. M., & Kennedy, J. A. (1978). Knowledge of results and children's motor learning. Developmental Psychology, 14, 531-536.

Okun, M. A. (1976). Adult age and cautiousness in decision a review of the literature. Human Development, 19, 220-223.

Park, J. H., Shea, C. H., & Wright, D. L. (2000). Reduced-frequency concurrent and terminal feedback: A test of the guidance hypothesis. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32, 287-296.

Payne, V. G., & Isaacs, L. D. (2002). Human motor development: A lifespan approach (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Piaget, J. (1947). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press.

Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40.

Salmoni, A. W., Schmidt, R. A., & Walter, C. B. (1984). Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 355-386.

Salvendy, G., & Harris, D. R. (1973). Effects of different modes of feedback on the acquisition and retention of psychomotor skills. Japanese Psychological Research, 15, 127-135.

Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82, 225-260.

Schmidt, R. A. (1991). Frequent augmented feedback can degrade learning: Evidence and interpretations. In G. E. Stelmach & J. Requin (Eds.), Tutorials in motor neuroscience (pp. 59-75). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Schmidt, R. A., Lange, C., & Young, D. E. (1990). Optimizing summary knowledge of results for skill learning. Human Movement Science, 9, 325-348.

Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. (2005). Motor control and learning: A behavioral emphasis (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based learning approach (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Schmidt, R. A., Young, D. E., Swinnen, S. P., & Shapiro, D. C. (1989). Summary knowledge of results for skill acquisition: Support for the guidance hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 352-359.

Sherwood, D. E. (1988). Effect of bandwidth knowledge of results on movement consistency. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66, 535-542.

Sherwood, D. E. (1996). The benefits of random variable practice for spatial accuracy and error detection in a rapid aiming task. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 35-43.

Swinnen, S. P. (1990). Interpolated activities during the knowledge-of-results delay and post-knowledge-of-results interval: Effects of performance and learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 692-705.

Swinnen, S. P. (1996). Information feedback for motor skill learning: A review. In H. N. Zelaznik (Ed.), Advances in motor learning and control (pp. 37-66). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Swinnen,S. P., Lee, T. D., Verschueren, S., Serrien, D. J., & Bogaerds, H. (1997). Interlimb coordination: Learning and transfer under different feedback conditions. Human Movement Science, 16, 749-785

Swinnen, S. P., Schmidt, R. A., Nicholson, D. E. & Shapiro, D. C. (1990). Information feedback for skill acquisition: Instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 706-716.

Thomas, J. R. (1980). Acquisition of motor skills: Information processing differences between children and adults. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 51, 158-173.

Thomas, K. T., Gallagher, J. D., & Thomas, J. R. (2001). Motor development and skill acquisition during childhood and adolescence. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 20-52). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Thorndike, E. L. (1927). The law of effect. American Journal of Psychology, 39, 212-222.

Titzer, R., Shea, J., & Romack, J. (1993). The effect of learner control in the acquisition and retention of a motor task. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(suppl.), S84.

Vallerand, R. J. (2002). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A hierarchical model. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 37-63). New York: University of Rochester Press.

Winstein, C. J. & Schmidt, R. A. (1990). Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 677-691.

Wrisberg, C. A., & Pein, R. L. (2002). Note on learners’ control of the frequency of model presentation during skill acquisition. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 792-794.

Wulf, G., McNevin, N., Shea, C.H., & Wright, D. (1999). Learning phenomena: Future challenges for the dynamical systems approach to understanding the learning of complex motor skills. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30, 531-557.

Wulf, G., & Schmidt, R. A. (1989). The learning of generalized motor programs: Reducing the relative frequency of knowledge of results enhances memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 748-757.

Wulf, G., Raupach, M., & Pfeiffer, F. (2005). Self-controlled observational practice enhances learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76, 107-111.

Wulf, G., Shea, C. H., & Matschiner, S. (1998). Frequent feedback enhances complex motor skill learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 30, 180-192.

Wulf, G., & Toole, T. (1999). Physical assistance devices in complex motor skill learning: Benefits of a self-controlled practice schedule. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 265-272.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: Which are the key subprocesses? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 307-313.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). Models of self-regulated learning and academic achievement. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement theory, research, and practice: Progress in cognitive development research (pp. 1-26). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulating academic learning and achievement: The emergence of a social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 2, 173-201.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulating: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.). Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American Education Research Journal, 23, 614-628.