研究生: |
陳根旺 Gen-Wang Chen |
---|---|
論文名稱: |
阿德勒取向探索活動對國小低自尊學生輔導效果之研究 A Study of the Guidance Effects of Adlerian- Oriented Adventure Activities for Elementary School Students with Low Self-Esteem |
指導教授: |
張景媛
Chang, Ching-Yuan |
學位類別: |
碩士 Master |
系所名稱: |
教育心理與輔導學系 Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling |
論文出版年: | 2003 |
畢業學年度: | 91 |
語文別: | 中文 |
論文頁數: | 228 |
中文關鍵詞: | 探索活動 、阿德勒取向探索活動 、自尊 、國小低自尊學生 |
英文關鍵詞: | Adventure activity, Adlerian-oriented adventure activity, Self-esteem, Elementary school students with low self-esteem |
論文種類: | 學術論文 |
相關次數: | 點閱:306 下載:126 |
分享至: |
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報 |
阿德勒取向探索活動對國小低自尊
學生輔導效果之研究
摘 要
本研究的主要目的在於探究透過「阿德勒取向探索活動」能否增進國小高年級低自尊學生的自尊。本研究之「阿德勒取向探索活動」,內容是基於探索教育課程設計的三大原則:1.經驗學習環。2.選擇性的挑戰。3.全方位價值契約,並融入阿德勒心理學的重要觀點:社會興趣、生活型態、追求優越、創造性自我等重要概念,分上、下學期進行,共有二十五個活動單元,上學期十三個單元,下學期十二個單元,活動歷程皆包含下列七項活動:1.暖身活動。2.凝聚活動。3.信任活動。4.溝通活動。5.合作活動。6.問題解決活動。7.社會責任活動。
本研究採前後測的實驗設計,分上、下學期實施,研究對象為台北市某國小五年級的學生共28人,其中實驗組14人;控制組14人。實驗組學生參與「阿德勒取向探索活動」,而控制組學生則不參加任何團體活動課程。本研究的自變項為實施「阿德勒取向探索活動」與階段(前測、中測、後測與延宕後測),而所有的參與者均接受「國小學童自尊問卷」(包含心理自尊、生理自尊、學業自尊、人際自尊、家庭自尊)。於整個活動結束一個半月後進行延宕後測,以探究「阿德勒取向探索活動」對國小高年級低自尊學生的延宕效果。
本研究所得資料以混合設計進行統計分析,其結果如下:
一、實驗組學生在學業自尊的後測得分高於控制組學生,顯示「阿德勒取向探索活動」有助於提升國小高年級低自尊學生的學業自尊。
二、實驗組學生在生理自尊、心理自尊、人際自尊、家庭自尊的中測、後測與延宕後測的得分與控制組學生均無差異存在。
由上述的研究結果可推知,從較長期實施的觀點而言,本研究「阿德勒取向探索活動」有助於增進國小高年級低自尊學生的學業自尊。此外,在研究者與實驗組學生的訪談資料中,研究者發現多數學生能將活動中的個人體會與心得,應用至生活中,並改善其在心理、生理、人際等方面對自我的認知評價和情意感受。
A Study of the Guidance Effects of Adlerian- Oriented Adventure Activities for Elementary School Students with Low Self-Esteem
Gen-Wang Chen
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to explore whether the high-grade elementary school students with low-esteem could enhance their self-esteem by participating Adlerian-oriented adventure activities. The contents of Adlerian-oriented adventure activities in this study were based on the three primary principles of curriculum plan in Adventure Education and the major concepts of Adler Psychology. The three principles included: (1) experiential learning circle; (2) challenge by choice; (3) full value contract. The major concepts of Adler Psychology included social interest, life style, strivings for superiority, creative self, and so on. Adlerian-oriented adventure activities in this study included 25 units of activities. 13 units were practiced in first semester and 12 units in second semester. The sequences of this activities included acquaintance activities, de-inhibitizer activities, trust and empathy activities, communication activities, cooperation activities, problem-solving activities and social responsibility activities.
This research adopted experimental design, and administered in the first semester and the second semester. There were 28 fifth-grade elementary school students in Taipei used as the participants (experimental group 14, control group 14). The students in experimental group participated Adlerian-oriented adventure activities. The students in control group didn’t take part in any group activity. The independent variables were Adlerian-oriented adventure activities and stages (previous, median, post and after-post test). The dependent variables were participants’ psychological self-esteem, physical self-esteem, academic self-esteem, interpersonal self-esteem and family self-esteem. In order to understand the delayed effects of Adlerian-oriented adventure activities on the participants, the after-post test was administered one and a half months after the activity was finished.
The collected data were analyzed by split-plot design. The main findings were as follows:
1.The experimental group had higher academic self-esteem scores in post-test than those of the control group. It showed that the Adlerian-oriented adventure activities were helpful to enhance the academic self-esteem of low-esteem elementary school students.
2.There were no differences of psychological self-esteem, physical self-esteem, interpersonal self-esteem and family self-esteem scores in post-test between experimental and control group.
According to the results, from the long-term viewpoints, Adlerian-oriented adventure activities were helpful to enhance the academic self-esteem of high-grade elementary school students with low-esteem. Additionally, from the interview with the experimental group, the researcher found that the students could apply their personal understanding to the daily life, and improved their self evaluation and perception in the self-esteem in psychological, physical and interpersonal aspects.
參考書目
一、中文部分
王梅華(民89):讀書治療對於國小低自尊兒童之個案輔導研究。國立新竹師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
朱玲億等 譯(民89):當代心理治療的理論與實務。臺北:心理。
李義男(民89):探索教育之超越心理功能。公民訓育學報,第九輯,63-80。
余紫瑛(民89):探索教育活動對國中學生自我概念及人際關係影響之實驗研究。國立台灣師範大學公民訓育研究所碩士論文。
沈鈺珍(民91):「理情U型自尊」團體方案對國小低自尊兒童自尊、理性思考、情緒智力之輔導效果研究。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
吳麗娟(民74):理情教育課程對國中學生理性思考、情緒穩定與自我
尊重之影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
周奕玲(民91):焦點解決短期諮商對低自尊個案復原力之建構。國立彰化師範大學輔導與諮商系碩士論文。
周儒、呂建政譯(民88):戶外教學。台北:五南。
周鳳琪(民90):國中適應不良學生參與探索諮商團體效益研究。國立台灣師範大學公民訓育研究所碩士論文。
高明珠(民88):國小兒童親子關係、內外控人格傾向、社會支持及其生活與學習適應之相關研究。台南師院國教所碩士論文。
梅靜宇(民90): 探索教育活動對非行少年及一般國中生的影響之研究。國立台灣師範大學公民訓育研究所碩士論文。
郭金龍(民91):探索教育課程對企業員工人際溝通效果之影響研究。朝陽科技大學休閒事業管理系碩士論文。
郭為藩(民85):自我心理學。台北:師大書苑。
曾端真(民80):德哈二氏自我瞭解發展模式在中國文化中的驗證及其
在評估認知治療效果上之應用。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所博士論文。
曾端真(民84):國小學童偏差行為與生活型態之分析研究。兒童輔導學術研討會論文集,台南師院,27-40。
曾端真(民85):阿德勒生活型態理論對國小學童之應用與驗證。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫。
曾端真(民86):國小學童生活型態及其手足因素之研究。台北:楊智。
曾端真、曾玲珉譯(民91):班級經營與兒童輔導。台北:天馬。
張玉珍(民75):音樂治療對低自我概念兒童自我知覺之影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
張景然、吳芝儀譯(民84):團體諮商的理論與實務。台北:楊智。
張春興(民90):現代心理學。台北市:東華。
張春興、林清山(民78):教育心理學(二十二版)。台北市:東華。
黃堅厚(民88):人格心理學。台北:心理。
黃堅厚(民68):國小及國中學生內外控信念之研究。教育心理學報,12期,1-14。
趙曉美(民89):自我概念多層面結構之驗證暨增進自我概念課程之實驗效果。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所博士論文。
潘慧玲(民80):兒童遊戲之研究。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計劃成果報告。
蔡居澤(民84a):探索教育與心療活動之探討。公民訓育學報,第四輯,409-432。
蔡居澤(民84b):探索教育活動在童軍教學上的運用。中等教育,46卷,6期,114-120。
蔡居澤、廖炳煌(民90):探索教育與活動學校。台南:翰林。
盧梅莉(民81):心理綜合諮商技術對提昇國中生自我概念程度之影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
賴昭志(民90):探索教育運用於生命教育可行性之研究。南華大學生死學研究所碩士論文。
劉焜輝 (民74):國立台灣師範大學學生自我觀念與生活適應關係之研究。台北市:國立台灣師範大學學生輔導中心。
二、英文部分
Aberson, C. L., Healy, M., & Romero, V. (2000). Ingroup Bias and self-esteem: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 157-163.
Alvarez, A. G., Stauffer, G. A. (2001). Musings on adventure therapy. The Journal of Experiential Education, 24, 85-91.
Arkoff, A. (1968). Adjustment and mental health. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
Barak, K. L. (1995). Adventure education and college student development:A exploratory study. Madison:University of Wisconsin.
Bean, R. (1992). The four conditions of self-esteem: A new approach for elementary and middle school. Santa Cruz, CA: ETR Associates.
Beane, I.A. & Lipka, R. P.(1984) . Self-Concept, Self-Esteem and the Curriculum. Newton, Mass: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Bee, H. (1983). The development of the children. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 301-311.
Berman, D. S., & Davis-Berman, J. (2001). Critical and emerging issues for therapeutic adventure. Journal of Experiential Education, 24 , 68-69.
Borba, M. (1989). Esteem builder: A K-8 self-esteem curriculum for improving student achievement , behavior and school climate. Torrance, CA: Jalmar Press.
Brooke, S. L.( 1996). Critical analysis of the self-esteem index. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Evaluation, 28, 233-238.
Brown, L., & Alexander, J.(1991).Self-esteem index examiner’s manual. Austin, TX: Pro-ed.
Bunting, C. J. (1990).Venture Dynamics. Texas:A & M V.
Byrne, B. M. (1996). Measuring self-concept across the life span issues and instruction. Washington, DC: American Psychology Association.
Byrne, D. E. (1974). A Introduction to personality: Research, theory and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Calhoun, J. F. & Acocella, J. R. (1983). Psychology of adjustment and human relationship. New York: Random House.
Campbell, J. D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 538-549.
Campbell, J. D., & Lavallee, L. F. (1993). In R. F. Baumeister(ED.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard(pp3-20). New York: Plenum Press.
Cason, D., Gillis, H. L. (1994). A Meta-Analysis of Outdoor Adventure Programming withAdolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 17, 40-47.
Cassidy, K. (2001). Enhancing your experiential program with narrative theory. The Journal of Experiential Education, 24, 22-26.
Chiu, L. H. (1988). Test the test: Measures of self-esteem for school-age children. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66, 298-231.
Chubb, N. H., Fertman, C. I., & Ross, J. L. (1997). Adolescent self-esteem and locus of control: A longitudinal study of gender and age differences. Adolescence, 32, 113-129.
Coan, R. W. (1983). Psychology of adjustment: Personal experience and development. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Coopersmith, S. (1959). A method for determining types of self-esteem. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 87-94.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Corey, G. (1996). Theory and Practice of Counseling and psychotherapy. California :Brooks/cole.
Corey, G. (1990). Theory and Practice of Group Counseling. California:Brooks/Cole.
Corsini, R. J. & Wedding, D. (1999). Current psychotherapies. Illinois:F. E. Pracock.
Crisp, S. (1997). International models of best practice in wilderness and adventure therapy. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED424052.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Haper & Row.
Daniel, L. G., & King, D. A. (1995). Relationships among various dimensions of self-esteem and academic achievement in elementary students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED403008)
David, B., & Gary, M. (2001). Enhancing Students’ Social and Psychology Development. Here’s How v19 n2 ISSN: 0750031. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED453572)
Demo, D. H. (1985).The measurement of self-esteem: Refining our methods. Journal of personality and social psychology, 48, 1490-1502.
Dickstein, E. (1977). Self and self-esteem: Theroetical foundations and their implications for research. Human Development, 20, 129-140.
Dinkmeyer, D. C., & Dinkmeyer, Jr. D. C., & Sperry, L. (1987). Adlerian counseling and psychotherapy. N. Y.: Macmillan.
Dreikurs, R., & Grey, L. (1970). A Parent’s Guide to Child Discipline. New York: Hawthorne Press.
Dreikurs, R., Grunwald, B. R. & Pepper, F. C. (1998). Maintaining sanity in the classroom:classroom management techniques. N.Y.:Taylor & Francis.
Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Flanagan, C. A., Miller, C., Reuman, D. A., & Yee, D. (1989). Self-concept, Domain Values, and self-esteem: Relations and changes at early adolescence. Journal of Personality, 57, 283-310.
Elliott, G. (1986). Self-esteem and self-presentation among the young as a function of age and gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11, 135-153.
Ellmo, W, & Graser, J. (1995). Adapted adventure activities:A rehabilitation model for adventure programming and group initiatives. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited or a theory of a theory. American Psychologist, 28, 405-416.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
Ewert, A. (1983). Outdoor adventure and self-concept: A research analysis. Eugene: University of Oregon, Center of Leisure Studies.
Ewert, A. (1989). Outdoor adventure pursuits: Foundations, models, and theories. Scottsdale, AZ: Publishing Horizons.
Faust, V. (1980). Self-esteem in the classroom. San Diego, CA: Thomas Paine Press.
Fleming, J. S. & Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimentionality of self-esteem: Ⅱ. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of personality and social psychology, 46, 404-421.
Gass, M. A. (1993). Adventure Therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming. Dubuque Iowa:Kendall/Hunt.
Garner, S. Y. (1995). Self-esteem of elementary and middle school children. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED397347.
Garst, B, Scheider, I., & Baker, D. (2001). Outdoor Adventure Program Participation Impacts on Adolescent Self-Perception. The Journal of Experiential Education, 24, 41-49.
Gillis, H. L., & Thomsen, D. (1996). A research update of adventure therapy (1992-1995): Challenge activities and ropes courses, wilderness expeditions, and residential camping programs. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED413128.
Glass, J. S., & Myers, J. E. (2001). Combining the old and the new to help adolescents: Individual psychology and adventure-based counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 104-125.
Grant, T. (1998). A consideration of select dimensions of self-concept and their relation to global self-esteem in native-born African-American and Caucasian young (adolescents, inner-city). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University.
Greiger, R.(1975).Self-concept ,self-esteem and rational emotive theory : A brief perspective. Rational Living, 10, 13-17.
Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 275-385). New York: Wiely & Sons.
Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In Roy F. Baumeister(Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of the low self-regard(pp. 87-116). New York: Plenum Press.
Harter, S. (1998). The development of self-representation. In W. Damon(Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 553-617). New York: Wiely & Sons.
Harter, S., & Pike, R. (1981). The pictorial perceived competence scale for young children. Unpublished manuscript, University of Denver.
Henton, M. (1996) . Adventure in the classroom. Dubuque Iowa:Kendall/Hunt.
Hopkins, D. & Putman, R. (1998). Personal growth through adventure. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Hughes, L. (1996). Beginning & beyond: A guide for personal growth & adjustment. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole.
Iheanacho, S. O. (1988). Minority self-concept: a research review. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 15, 3-11.
James, W. (1980). Psychology. New York: Fawcett.
Johnson, J. E., Christie, J. F. & Yawkey, T. D. (1987). Play and early childhood development. Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Kernis, M. H., Brockner, J., & Frankel, B. S. (1989). Self-esteem and reaction to failure: The mediating role of overgeneralization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 707-714.
Kimball, R. & Bacon, S. (1993). The wilderness challenge model. In M. Gass(Eds) , Adventure Therapy: Therapeutic applications of adventure programming.(pp.11-41) Dubuque IA:Kendall/Hunt.
King, D. A., & Daniel, L. G. (1996). Psychometric integrity of the self-esteem index: A comparison of normative and field study results. Educational & Psychological Measurement, 56, 537-550.
King, K. A. (1997). Self-concept and self-esteem: A clarification of terms. Journal of School Health, 67, 68-70.
Knapp,C.E. (1996). Just beyond the classroom: Community adventures for interdisciplinary leasrning. Charleston: Appalachia Educational Laboratory.
Kottman, T. & Johnson, V.(1993) Adlerian play therapy: A tool for school counselors. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 28, 43-53.
Kottman, T. (1994). Alderian play therapy. In O’Connor, K. J., & Schaefer, C. E., Handbook of play therapy, volumn two: advances and innovations(pp3-26). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Kottman, T. (1995). Parents in play: An Adlerian approach to play therapy. American Counseling Association.
Kraft, R. J. & Sakofs, M. (1985). The theory of experiential education. Boulder, CO: Association for Experiential Education.
Itin, C. M. (2001). Adventure therapy-critical question. Journal of Experiential Education, 24, 80-84.
Laconte, M. A., Shaw, D., & Dunn, (1993). The effects of a rational-emotive
affective education program for high-risk middle school students. Psychology
in the school, 30, 274-281.
Landreth, G. L. (1991). History and development of play therapy. Accelerated Development Inc.
Landreth, G. L. (1993). Child-centered play therapy. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 28, 17-29.
Lawrence, D. (1988). Enhancing self-esteem in the classroom. London: St Edmundsbury Press.
Lawrence, D. (2000). Building self-esteem with adult learners. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Lazarus, R. S. (1976). Patterns of adjustment(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Locke, D. C., Myers, J. E., & Herr, E. L. (2001). The handbook of counseling. California Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Interpersonal functions of the self-esteem motive: The self-esteem system as a social meter. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 123-140). New York: Plenum Press.
Ludin, R. W. (1989). Alfred Adler’s basic concepts and implications. Indiana Muncie:Accelerated Development Inc.
Lupton, F. (1990). WEA history. In J. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.). Adventure education (pp.89-96). State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.
Lynch, M. D. (1981). Self-concept development in childhood. In M. D. Lynch, A. A. Norem-Hebeisen, & K. Gergen (Eds.). Self-concept: Advances in theory and research. Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger.
Man, A. D., & Devisse, T. (1987). Locus of control, mental ability, self-esteem and allienation. Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 233-236.
Martin, A., Leberman, S., & Neil, J. (2002). Dramaturgy as a method for
Experientials programs designs. The Journal of Experiential Education, 25 , 196-206.
Mcgee, R., & Williams, S. (2000) . Does low self-esteem predict health compromising behaviours among adolescents? Joural of Adolescence, 23, 569-582.
Mcgough, D. J. & Roth, M. (1990). Foundation of experiential methodology:An introductory workshop in experiential theory and practice for professional education. Minnetonka: Voyageur Outward Bound School. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.ED353109).
Mead, C. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Miner, J. L.(1990).The Creation of Outward Bound. In Miles, J. & Priest, S.(Eds.)Adventure Education(pp. 55-66). State College, PA: Venture Publishing,Inc.
Moote, G. T., & Wodarski, J. S. (1997). The acquisition of life skills through adventure-based activities and programs: A review of the literature. Adolescence, 32, 143-167.
Mosak, H. (1995). Adlerian psychology: In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding(Eds), Current psychotherapies(5th ed.)(pp. 51-94). Illinois:F. E. Pracock.
Mullener, N., & Laird, J. D. (1971) Some developmental changes in the organization of self-evaluations. Development Psychology, 5, 233-236.
Nadler, R. & Luckner, J. (1992). Processing the adventure experience. Dubuque IA:Kendall/Hunt.
Nassar-McMillan, S. C. & Cashwell, C. S. (1997). Building self-esteem of children and adolescents through Adventure-based counseling. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 36, 59-67.
Newman, P. R. & Newman, B. M. (1981). Living: The process of adjustment. Illionis: The Dorsey Press.
Norris, J., & Kunes-Connell, M. (1985). Self-esteem disturbance. Nursing Clinics of North American, 20, 745-761.
O’Connell, T. S. (2001). Self-concept: A study of outdoor adventure education with adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New York.
Perry, K. E., & Weinstein, R. S. (1998). The social context of early schooling and children’s school adjustment. Educational Psychologist, 33, 177-194.
Piaget, J. (1962). Play dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.
Piers, E. V. & Harris, D. B. (1984). Piers-Harris children self-concept scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Pope, A. W., McHale, S. M., & Craighead, W. E. (1988). Self-esteem enhancement with children and adolescents. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Prouty, D. (1990). Project adventure: A brief history. In J. Miles & S. Priest (Eds.). Adventure education (p. 97). State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.
Rathus, S. A., & Nevid, J. S. (1995). Adjustment and growth: Psychology and the challenges of life(6th. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehert and Winston.
Rockville, M. D. (1996). Basic behavioral science research for mental ealth: vulnerability and resilience. American Psychologist, 50, 22-28.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
Rudiger, G. (1997). Gestalt and adventure Therapy: Parallels and Perspectives Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy:International Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Adventure. Therapy Conference (1st, Perth, Australia, July 1997)
Sawrey, J. M., & Telford, C. W. (1971). Psychology of Adjustment(3rd ed.). Bosten: Allny and Bacon.
Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988).Islands of healing:A guide to adventure based counseling. Hamilton, MA:Project Adventure, Inc.
Schneider, M. F., Stone, M. (1998). Processes and techniques of journal writing in adlerian therapy. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 54, 511-534.
Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and cognitive skill learning. In C. Ames & R. Ames(Eds.), Research on Motivation in Education, Vol3: Goal and Cognitions(pp.13-44). San Diego: Academic Press.
Schweitzer, R. D., Seth-Smith, M., & Callan, V. (1992). The relationship between self-esteem and psychological adjustment in young adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 15, 83-97.
Setterlund, M. B., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1993). “Who am I? Why am I here?” Self-esteem, self-clarity, and prototype matching. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 769-780.
Shaffer, L. F., & Shoben, E. J. (1956). The psychology of adjustment: A dynamic and experimental approach to personality and mental hygiene. Boston: Houghton Miffin Company.
Simon, J. A., Kalichman, S., Santrock, J. W. (1994). Human Adjustment. Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Communication.
Steitz, J. A., & Owen T. P. (1992) School activities and work: Effects on adolescent self-esteem. Adolescence, 27, 37-50.
Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Mind in context: Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Stich, T. F., & Gaylor, M.S. (1983). Outward Bound: An Innovative Patient Education Program. Dartmouth Medical School.
Sweeney, D. S.,& Homeyer, L. E. (1999). The handbook of group play therapy: How to do it, how it works, whom it’s best for. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sweeney,T. J. (1989). Adlerian counseling: A practical approach for a new decade. IN: Accelerated development INC.
Talbot, P. A. (2000). An evaluation on the impact of adventure-based educational programs on self-esteem and academic achievement of adolescents at risk. Unpublished masteral dissertation, University of California State.
Talent, N. (1978). Psychology of adjustment: Understanding ourselves and others. New York: Van Nostrand.
Taylor, S. E., Peplau, L. A., & Sears, D. O. (1997). Social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Thorne, A., & Michaelieu, Q. (1994, August). Situating adolescent gender and self-esteem with personal memories. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angels, CA.
Watkins, D., & Dhawan, N. (1989). Do we need to distinguish the constructs of self-concept and self-esteem? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4, 555-562.
Wheelock, M. A. (1996). Differences in adolescent self-esteem across gender, ethnicity, social status, and development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California State.
Wick, D. (1996). Improving self-esteem of elementary school children with Adlerian adventure therapy. Texas: Our Lady of the Lake University.
Webster, S. E. (1978). Project Adventure:A trip into the unknown. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 49, 39-41.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and educational development. In A, Bandura(ED.), Self-efficacy in changing societies(pp.202-231). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zwart, T. J. (1988). The effect of a wilderness/adventure program on the self-concept,locus of control orientation,and interpersonal behavior of delinquent adolescents. Michigan:Western Michigan University.