第一章、北臺灣地區植物入侵之概況

對於未來進一步的研究而言，包含有分類組成、相對覆蓋度、相對頻度、生活型、原產地及原產地之氣候類型等詳盡的歸化植物基本資料是不可缺少的。為深入探討歸化植物的特性，我們建立了下列兩個假說並驗證之：(1) 由於北臺灣擁有多樣的氣候及地形條件，包括熱帶及亞熱帶氣候的低海拔平原及溫帶氣候的高海拔山地，容易受到來自世界各地的外來植物所入侵；(2)在北臺灣地區成功建立族群的大多數歸化植物，其原產地的氣候條件與北臺灣相符合。
野外調查部份在北臺灣各縣市進行，利用1-km2之網格系統隨機選取100個網格做為實驗樣區，在每個樣區中的各種棲地類型隨機選取五至十個不等之1-m2樣點，記錄日期、GPS、海拔高度、原生及歸化之植物種類及植物覆蓋度；另外，計算每一種歸化植物的重要值指數(IVI)做為優勢度之指標。調查總共在2242個樣點記錄了12種棲地類型及629種植物，其隸屬於130個科及409個屬。依據各歸化類群所擁有的物種總數來排序，菊科、禾本科及豆科為最優勢的三個科，旋花屬則為最優勢的屬；此外，依據重要值指數排序，大花鬼針草為最優勢的歸化物種。就原產地而言，在北臺灣的大部份歸化植物來自熱帶美洲。

第二章、北臺灣地區歸化豆科植物對於植物群之衝擊

過去研究顯示，入侵植物常對於當地的生物多樣性造成衝擊，包括競爭排除、竭盡水源或改變微棲地物化性質等。其中，改變微棲地物化性質往往造成深遠且不可逆的影響；然而，此環節卻鮮少被討論。在眾多改變微棲地物化性質的機制中，固氮作用是最常見且能改變土壤物化性質的重要機制之一。一般而言，豆科(Fabaceae)植物能藉由固氮作用適應當地環境並增加該地區土壤的生物承載量，進而改變該地區植物之生物量及多樣性。
本研究設立下列四個假說以探討歸化之豆科植物在北臺灣植物群落之生物量及多樣性所造成之衝擊性：(1) 歸化豆科植物的存在與相對較高的植物生物量及多樣性有關；(2) 歸化豆科植物提昇了土壤含氮量；(3) 歸化豆科植物同時增加原生及外來植物之生物量及多樣性；(4) 歸化豆科植物在不同棲地類型之植物群落造成之衝擊性會有所不同。
實驗以北臺灣為樣區，利用每平方公里之網格系統，隨機選取100個1km2樣區，利用正射化影像(Othophoto)判定棲地類型，並各自選取五到十個不等的1m2小樣方，記錄GPS、海拔高度、棲地類型、植物種類以及覆蓋度等，並轉換成多樣性指數包括Shannon(H’)、Simpson(λ)、Pielou均勻度指數(J)、Berger-Parker優勢度指數(BP)、物種數(S)及總覆蓋度(C)等六項指數；另外，收集土壤樣本以評估歸化豆科植物之存在與否造成含氮量之差異性。
結果顯示，在100 km2中2242m2的小樣方共記錄了16種歸化豆科植物，其中以大葛藤 (Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi ssp. thomsonii (Benth.) Ohashi & Tateishi)為最優勢之種類；大多數的歸化豆科植物為原產於熱帶地區的草本，且偏好特定的棲地類型，如農地、河岸地、荒廢地及路邊。在土壤營養鹽部份，歸化豆科植物提高了局部的氮總量；另外，存在歸化豆科植物會顯著增加外來歸化植物之生物量及多樣性，但對於原生植物卻沒有增加或減少的趨勢。然而，若將歸化豆科植物從分析中移除，其存在與否對於其它外來歸化植物並沒有增加或減少的趨勢。
此外，分別探討歸化豆科植物種數最多的五種棲地，包括荒廢地、河岸、農地、墓地及路邊，其受衝擊程度與整體完全一致，即存在歸化豆科植物會顯著增加這五種棲地類型之外來歸化植物生物量及多樣性，但對於原生植物依舊沒有增加或減少的趨勢；但若將歸化豆科植物從分析中移除，其存在與否亦對於這五種棲地類型之其它外來歸化植物並沒有增加或減少的趨勢。
根據我們的結果，北臺灣地區之歸化豆科植物對於當地植物群落生物量與多樣性之衝擊幾乎接近中性；然而，我們仍需密切注意歸化豆科植物在臺灣中部與南部這些亞熱帶區域所造成之衝擊，一方面比較改變棲地物化因子之相同分類群在不同緯度間之衝擊性必定是個有趣的議題；另一方面，對於這些能改變棲地性質之分類群的了解能更佳透徹。

Chapter 1. Plant Invasion in north Taiwan: Insights from the Flora of Naturalized Alien Species

Regional naturalized flora with detailed information such as taxonomic composition, relative coverage, frequency, life form, and native areas and climates of naturalized species is important and available to further research. To generate better understanding of those characteristics of naturalized species, we developed and tested the following two hypotheses: (1) North Taiwan, as tropical / subtropical in low altitude and temperate in high altitude with diversified terrains and climate, is vulnerable to plant invasions from all over the world; and (2) the majority of successful naturalized species were introduced from areas with climates similar to those prevailing in north Taiwan. The field investigation was carried out in four counties in north Taiwan. By using 1km2 grid systems, one hundred of total grids were randomly selected as the sample areas. Five to ten square meters quadrates of each habitat type; furthermore, were investigated.
A total of 2,242 1-m2 quadrats and twelve habitat types were recorded. Plant species and coverage of all native and naturalized species were collected, and IVI values were calculated for each naturalized species for the summary of dominance. A total of 629 species belonging to 130 families and 409 genus were documented. In part of naturalized flora, there were about 80% dicotyledons in species number and 71% herbs in life form. Among these naturalized flora, Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae were the most dominant families and Ipomoea was the most dominant genus according to their own species numbers. In addition, Bidens pilosa L. var. radiata Sch. was the dominant naturalized species according to the IVI value. In part of their origins, most naturalized species in north Taiwan were from America in area and tropical in climate.

Chapter 2. The Impacts of Naturalized Legumes on Plant Communities in north Taiwan

It has been shown that invasive plants usually impact local biodiversity by competitive exclusion, water depletion, microhabitat transformation, etc. Among these impacts, nitrogen-fixation is one of the most serious transform mechanisms invasive plant, such as legumes, may employ. Although the impacts of invasive habitat transformer have been discussed in few studies, comprehensive approaches on the impacts of local biodiversity and biomass upon community level have yet been conducted. My main purpose of this study was to estimate the impacts of naturalized legumes, notorious habitat transformers, on local biomass and biodiversity.
To generate better understanding of the impacts caused by naturalized legumes on local plant communities, we developed and tested the following hypotheses: (1) Presence of naturalized legumes is associated with relatively higher biomass and biodiversity; (2) Presence of naturalized legumes elevates soil nitrogen; (3) Naturalized legumes increase local biomass and biodiversity of both native and naturalized species; (4) The impacts of naturalized legumes on local communities are varied along habitat types. Furthermore, we also anticipated answering the following questions: (1) What are the dominant naturalized legumes in the study areas? ; (2) What are the favorite habitat types of naturalized legumes?
The field investigation was carried out in four counties in north Taiwan. By using 1km2 grid systems, one hundred of total grids were randomly selected as the sample areas. Five to ten square meters quadrates; furthermore, were investigated. A total of 2,242 1-km2 quadrats and twelve habitat types were recorded. Plant species and coverage of all native and naturalized species were collected, and IVI values were calculated for each naturalized legumes for the summary of dominance. Six biodiversity indices, including Shannon-Weaver (H’), Simpson (λ), Pielou evenness (J), Berger-Parker Dominance (BP) indices and species numbers (S), and total coverage (C) were summarized for further comparisons. In addition, soil samples were collected in pairs, presence and absence of naturalized legumes, to estimate the differences of available nitrogen.
A total of 629 species belonging to 130 families and 409 genus were documented. Among these species, 16 are naturalized legumes. Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi ssp. thomsonii (Benth.) Ohashi & Tateishi was the dominant species according to the IVI value, were recorded. Most of the naturalized legumes were herbs, from tropical areas, and preferred specific habitats, such as arable land, riparian, abandoned field, and roadside. In the part of soil nutrient, total nitrogen content was increased locally by naturalized legumes. Besides, local biomass and biodiversity of naturalized flora were increased significantly by naturalized legumes, but neither did native flora. However, the biomass and biodiversity of naturalized flora, excluding naturalized legumes, were not elevated on the enriched soils, either. Furthermore, separately for the habitat types, the results were consistently with overall condition that naturalized legumes significantly increased local biomass and biodiversity in those legume-preferred habitat types. But when naturalized legumes were excluded, there were no significant difference in separate habitats, either.
According to our results, the impacts of naturalized legumes on local communities, including biomass and biodiversity, in north Taiwan were nearly neutral. However, we should still pay attention to naturalized legumes whose impacts on central and south Taiwan. On the one hand, comparisons of impacts of the same taxon of habitat transformers among different latitudes would be an interested issue; on the other hand, the comprehensive study for habitat transformers would be further clarified.

Chapter 1. Plant Invasion in north Taiwan: Insights from the Flora of Naturalized Alien Species

Alston, K. P. & D. M. Richardson, 2006. The roles of habitat feature, disturbance, and distance from putative source populations in structuring alien plant invasions at the urban/wildland interface on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Biol. Conserv., 132: 183–198.
Arroyo, M. T. K., C. Marticorena, O. Matthei & L. Cavieres, 2000. Plant invasions in Chile: present patterns and future predictions. Invasive species in a changing world (ed. by H.A. Mooney and R.J. Hobbs), pp. 385–424. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Austin, D. F., 2000. Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis, Convolvuaceae) in North America: From medicine to menace. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, 127: 172–177.
Booth, B. D., S. D. Murphy, & C. J. Swanton, 2003. Weed ecology in natural and agricultural systems. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
Chen, K. Z., 1990. Qingdai Taiwan yimin shehui yanjiu xiamen daxue chubanshe. Xiamen, China. [In Chinese].
Chien, C. J., 1995. Development and settlements of Taiwan. Avanguard Publishing Co., Taipei, Taiwan. [In Chinese].
Corlett, R. T., 1988. The naturalized flora of Singapore. Journal of Biogeography, 15: 657–663.
Corlett, R. T., 1992. The naturalized flora of Hong Kong: a comparison with Singapore. Journal of Biogeography, 19: 421–430.
D’Antonio, C. M., & T. L. Douley, 1995. Biological Invasions as agents of change on the islands versus mainland. Islands: biological diversity and ecosystem function (ed. by P.M. Vitousek, L.L. Loope and H. Adersen), pp. 103–121. Springer Inc, New York.
Daehler, C., 2001. Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis revisited. American Naturalist, 158: 324–330.
Darwin, C., 1859. On the origin of species (ed. by J. Murray). London, UK.
Duncan, R. P. & P. A. Williams, 2002. Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis challenged. Nature, 417: 608–609.
Editorial Committee of Chinese Forestry Association, ed. 1993. History of forestry in Taiwan. Chinese Forestry Association, Taipei, Taiwan. [In Chinese].
Enomoto, T., 1999. Naturalized weeds from foreign countries into Japan. Biological invasions of ecosystem by pests and beneficial organisms (ed. by E. Yano, K. Matsuo, M. Shiyomi and D.A. Andow), pp. 1–14. National Institute of Agro-Environmental Science, Tsukuba, Japan.
Fensham, R. J. & J. D. Cowie, 1998. Alien plant invasions on the Tiwi islands: extent, implications and priorities for control. Biological Conservation, 83: 55–68.
Foxcroft, L. C., M. Rouget, & D. M. Richardson, 2007. Risk assessment of riparian plant invasions into protected areas. Conservation Biology. 21: 412–421.
Foxcroft, L. C., D. M. Richardson & J. R. U. Wilson, 2008. Ornamental Plants as Invasive Aliens: Problems and Solutions in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Environmental Management, 41: 32-51.
Gelbard, J. L. & J. Belnap, 2003. Roads as conduits for exotic plant invasions in a semiarid landscape. Conservation Biology, 17: 420–432.
Gelbard, J. L. & S. Harrison, 2005. Invasibility of roadless grasslands: An experimental study of yellow starthistle. Ecological Applications, 15: 1570–1580.
Hendrickson, C., T. Bell, K. Butler, & L. Hermanutz, 2005. Disturbance - enabled invasion of Tussilago farfara L. in Gros Morne National Park, Newfoundland: management implications. Natural Areas Journal, 25: 263–274.
Heywood, V. H., 1989. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants. Biological invasions: a global perspective (ed. by J.A. Drake, H.A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R.H. Groves, F.J. Kruger, M. Rejmánek and M. Williamson), pp. 31–60. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Hsieh, C. H., 2002. Composition, endemism and phytogeographical affinities of the Taiwan Flora. Taiwania, 47: 298–310.
Hsu, C. C., 1975. Illustrations of common plants of Taiwan. Vol. I. Weeds. Taiwan Provincial Education Association, Taipei, Taiwan.
Hsu, M. L. & M. Y. Chiang, 2000. Lawn weeds in Taiwan Taiwan Agricultural Chemicals and Toxic Substances Research Institute, Taichung, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1976. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 2, 1st edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1977. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 3, 1st edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1978. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 4, 1st edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1979. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 6, 1st edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1993. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 3, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1994. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 1, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1996. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 2, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1998. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 4, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 2000. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 5, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 2003. Flora of Taiwan, Vol. 6, 2nd edn. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Jesson, L., D. Kelly, & A. Sparrow, 2000. The importance of dispersal, disturbance, and competition for exotic plant invasions in Arthur’s Pass National Park, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 38: 451–468.
Kang, M., J. J. H. Ciborowski & L. B. Johnson, 2007. The influence of anthropogenic disturbance and environmental suitability on the distribution of the nonindigenous Amphipod, Echinogammarus ischnus, at Laurentian Great Lakes Coastal Margins. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 33: 198-210.
Klemow, K. M., D. R., Clements, P. F. Threadgill & P. B. Cavers, 2002. The biology of Canadian weeds. 116. Echium vulgare L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 82: 235–248.
Kloot, P. M. 1987a. The invasion of Kangaroo Island by alien plants. Australian Journal of Ecology, 12: 263–266.
Kloot, P. M. 1987b. The naturalized flora of South Australia 4. Its manner of introduction. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden, 10: 223–240.
Koh, K. S., J. G. Na, M. H. Suh, J. H. Kil, Y. B. Ku, J. H. Yoon & H. K. Oh, 2000. The effects of alien plants on ecosystem and their management (I). The Plant Taxonomic Society of Korea, Korea. [In Korean].
Lake, J. C. & M. R. Leishman, 2004. Invasion success of exotic plants in natural ecosystems: the role of disturbance, plant attributes and freedom from herbivores. Biological Conservation, 117: 215–226.
Lee, M. A. B., 1974. Distribution of native and invader plant species on the island of Guam. Biotropica, 6: 158–164.
Li, H., 1998. Weed flora of China. Chinese Agriculture Publishing, Beijing, China.
Lin, C. Y., 1968. Weeds found on cultivated land in Taiwan. Department of Agronomy, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Lin, T. F., 1997. The development history of Taiwan. Published by author, Taipei, Taiwan. [In Chinese].
Loope, L. L. & D. Mueller-Dombois, 1989. Characteristics of invaded islands, with special reference to Hawaii. Biological invasions: a global perspective (ed. by J.A. Drake, H.A. Mooney, F. Di Castri, R.H. Groves, F.J. Kruger, M. Rejmánek and M. Williamson), pp. 257–274. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Mabberley, D. J., 1997. The plant - book. A portable dictionary of the vascular plants, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Mack, R. N., 1992. Characteristics of invading plant species. Alien plant invasions in native ecosystems of Hawaii. Management and research (ed. by C.P. Stone, C.W. Smith and J.T. Tunison), pp. 42–46. University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, Hawaii.
Mack, R. N., 2003. Plant naturalizations and invasions in the eastern United States: 1634–1860. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 90: 77–90.
Mack, R. N. & M. Erneberg, 2002. The United States naturalized flora: largely the product of deliberate introductions. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 89: 176–189.
Maheshwari, J. K. & S. R. Paul, 1975. The exotic flora of Ranchi, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 72: 158–188.
Merrill, E. D., 1912. Notes on the flora of Manila with special reference to the introduced element. The Philippine Journal of Science, 7: 145–208.
Meyer, J. Y., 2000. Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands (SPREP Member Counties). Invasive species in the Pacific: a technical review and draft regional strategy (ed. By G. Sherley), pp. 85–114. South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme, Samoa.
Mueller-Dombois, D. & H. Ellenberg, 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Myers, J. H. & D. R. Bazely, 2003. Ecology and control of introduced plants. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Paiaro, V., A. Mangeaud, & E. Pucheta, 2007. Alien seedling recruitment as a response to altitude and soil disturbance in the mountain grasslands of central Argentina. Plant ecology, 193: 279-291.
Pan, Y., 1992. History and study of settlements in Taiwan. Independence Evening Post, Taipei, Taiwan. [In Chinese].
Pandey, R. P. & P. J. Parmar, 1994. The exotic flora of Rajasthan. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 18: 105–136.
Pickard, J., 1984. Exotic plants on Lord Howe Island: distribution in space and time, 1853–1981. Journal of Biogeography, 11: 181–208.
Pysek, P., 1998. Is there a taxonomic pattern to plant invasions? Oikos, 82: 282–294.
Pysek, P. & K. Prach, 2003. Research into plant invasions in the Czech Republic: history and focus. Biological Invasions, 5: 337– 348.
Pysek, P., D. M. Richardson, M. Rejmánek, G. L. Webster, M. Williamson & J. Kirschner, 2004. Alien plants in checklists and floras: towards better communication between taxonomists and ecologists. Taxon, 53: 131–143.
Pysek, P., J. Sádlo, & B. Mandák, 2002. Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic. Preslia, Praha, 74: 97–186.
Randall, R. P., 2002. A global compendium of weeds. R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Meredith, Victoria, Australia.
Randall, R. P. & S. G. Lloyd, 2002. Weed warning from downunder — the weed potential of selected South African plants in cultivation in California. Proceedings of the 13th Australian Weeds Conference, Perth, Western Australia September 8–13th 2002 (ed. by H. Spafford-Jacob, J. Dodd and J. Moore), pp. 192–195. Plant Protection Society of Western Australia, Australia.
Rejmánek, M., 1996. Species richness and resistance to invasions. Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests (ed. by G.H. Orians, R. Dirzo and J.H. Cushman), pp. 153–172. Springer, New York.
Rejmánek, M., 1998. Invasive plants and invasible ecosystems. Invasive species and biodiversity management (ed. by O.T. Sandlund, P.J. Schei and Å. Viken), pp. 79–102. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
Rejmánek, M. & D. M. Richardson, 1996. What attributes make some plant species more invasive? Ecology, 77: 1655–1661.
Rejmánek, M., C. D. Thomsen, & I. D. Peters, 1991. Invasive vascular plants of California. Biogeography of Mediterranean invasions (ed. by R.H. Groves and F. Di Castri), pp. 81–101. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Richardson, D. M., P. Pysek, M. Rejmánek, M. G. Barbour, F. D. Panetta & C. J. West, 2000. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions, 6: 93–107.
Rogers, G. M. & J. R. Leathwick, 1996. North island seral tussock grasslands. 3. The influence of heather (Calluna vulgaris) on rates of change from tussock grassland to shrubland. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 1996: 473–487.
Ross, K. A., B. J. Fox & M. D. Fox, 2002. Changes to plant species richness in forest fragments: fragment age, disturbance and fire history may be as important as area. Journal of Biogeography, 29: 749–765.
Rozefelds, A. C. F., L. Cave, D. I. Morris & A. M. Buchana, 1999. The weed invasion in Tasmania since 1970. Australian Journal of Botany, 47: 23–48.
Silva, L. & C. W. Smith, 2004. A characterization of the nonindigenous flora of the Azores Archipelago. Biological Invasions, 6: 193–204.
Simberloff, D., 1995. Why do introduced species appear to devastate islands more than mainland areas? Pacific Science, 49: 87–97.
Söyrinki, N., 1991. On the alien flora of the province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Annales Botanici Fennici, 28: 59–79.
Stadler, J., A. Trefflich, S. Klotz & R. Brandl, 2000. Exotic plant species invade diversity hot spots: alien flora of north-western Kenya. Ecography, 23: 169–176.
Sykes, W. R., 1996. Checklist of bamboos (Poaceae) naturalized in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 34: 153–156.
Theoharides, K. A. & J. S. Dukes, 2007. Plant invasion across space and time: factors affecting nonindigenous species success during four stages of invasion. New phytologist, 176: 256-273.
Thuiller, W., D. M. Richardson, M. Rouget, S. Proches & J. R. U. Wilson, 2006. Interactions between environment, species traits, and human uses describe patterns of plant invasions. Ecology, 87: 1755–1769.
Turner, I. M., 1997. A tropical flora summarized - a statistical analysis of the vascular plant diversity of Malaya. Flora, 192: 157–163.
Vilá, M. & I. Muñoz, 1999. Patterns and correlates of exotic and endemic plant taxa in the Balearic Islands. Ecologia Mediterranea, 25: 153–161.
Villaseñor, J. L. & F. J. Espinosa-Garcia, 2004. The alien flowering plants of Mexico. Diversity and Distributions, 10: 113–123.
Vitousek, P. M., C. M. D’Antonio, L. L. Loope, M. Rejmánek & R. Westbrooks, 1997. Introduced species: a significant components of human-caused global change. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 21: 1–16.
Weber, E. F., 1997. The alien flora of Europe: a taxonomic and biogeographic review. Journal of Vegetation Science, 8: 565–572.
Weber, E., 2003. Invasive plant species of the world: a reference guide to environmental weeds. CABI Publishing, UK.
Whittaker, R. J., 1998. Island biogeography: ecology, evolution, and conservation. Oxford University Press.
Wilson, J. R. U., D. M. Richardson, M. Rouget, Ş. Procheş, M. A. Amis, L. Henderson & W. Thuiller, 2007. Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Diversity and distribution, 13: 11-22.
Wolff, R., L. Abbott & S. Pistorale, 2001. Reproductive strategy of Bromus catharticus Vahl (Cebadilla criolla): Phenotypic plasticity in natural population progenies. Journal of Genetics and Breeding, 55: 67–74.
Wu, Y. H., 1997. Forgotten Japanese Taiwan botanists. Chen Kuang Publishing, Taiwan.
Wu, S. H., S. M. Chaw & M. Rejmánek, 2003. Naturalized Fabaceae (Leguminosae) species in Taiwan: the first approximation. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 44: 59–66.
Wu, S. H., C. H. Hsieh & M. Rejmánek, 2004. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania, 49: 16–31.
Wu, S. H., Y. C. Teng, S. M. Chaw, C. F. Hsieh & K. C. Yang, submitted. Insights of doubled naturalized flora in six years.
Wuerthner, G., 1996. Alien invasion. National Parks, 70: 32–35.
Zerbe, S., I. K. Choi & I. Kowarik, 2004. Characteristics and habits of non-native plant species in the city of Chonju, southern Korea. Ecological Research, 19: 91–98.

Chapter 2. The Impacts of Naturalized Legumes on Plant Communities in north Taiwan

Almeida, A. S., A. M. M. Goncalves, J. L. Pereira, & F. Goncalves, 2006. The impact of Eichhornia crassipes on green algae and cladocerans. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 15(12a): 1531.
Alston, K. P. & D. M. Richardson, 2006. The roles of habitat features, disturbance, and distance from putative source populations in structuring alien plant invasions at the urban / wildland interface on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Biological Conservation, 32: 183-198.
Aronson, M. F. J., S. N. Handel, & S. E. Clemants, 2007. Fruit type, life form and origin determine the success of woody plant invaders in an urban landscape. Biological Invasions, 9: 465-475.
Baker, H.G., 1965. Characteristics and modes of origins of weeds. The Genetics of Colonizing Species (eds H.G. Baker & G. L. Stebbins), Academic Press, London, UK.
Baret, S., S. Maurice, T. L. Bourgeois, & D. Strasberg, 2004. Altitudinal variation in fertility and vegetative growth in the invasive plant Rubus alceifolius Poriet (Rosaceae), on Réunion island. Plant Ecology, 172: 265-273.
Bremner, J. H., 1965. Total nitrogen, inorganic forms of nitrogen, organic forms of nitrogen. In: C. A. Black (ed.) Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2. Am. Soc. Of Agron., Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Corlett, R. T., 1988. The naturalized flora of Singapore. Journal of Biogeography, 15: 657-663.
Corlett, R.T., 1992. The naturalized flora of Hong Kong: a comparison with Singapore. Journal of Biogeography, 19: 421-430.
de Faria, S. M., G. P. Lewis, J. I. Sprent, & J. M. Sutherland, 1989. Occurrence of nodulation in the Leguminosae. New Phytologist, 111: 607-619.
Døckersmith I. C., C. P. Giardina & R. L. Sanford, 1999. Persistence of tree related patterns in soil nutrients following slash-and-burn disturbance in the tropics. Plant and Soil, 209(1): 137-157.
Harrington, R. A., R. Kujawski, & H. D. P. Ryan, 2003. Invasive Plants and the Green Industry. Journal of Arboriculture, 29(1): 42-48.
Hotter, G. S. & D. B. Scott, 1997. The requirement for exopolysaccharide precedes the requirement for flavolan-binding polysaccharide in nodulation of Leucaena leucocephala by Rhizobium loti. Archives of microbiology, 167: 182-186.
Haubensak, K. A. & I. M. Parker, 2004. Soil changes accompanying invasion of the exotic shrub Cytisus scoparius in glacial outwash prairies of western Washington [USA]. Plant Ecology, 175: 71–79.
Huang, T. C., 1993. Plant taxonomy: families of Taiwan vascular plants. National Institute for Compilation and Translation. (In Chinese)
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, ed. 1993. Flora of Taiwan, vol. 3, ed. 2. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan. Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huang, T. C. & Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan ed. 1994. Flora of Taiwan, vol. 1, ed. 2. Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan. Department of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
Huenneke, L. F., S. R. Hamburg, R. Koide, H. A. Mooney, & P. M. Vitousek. 1990. Effects of soil resources on plant invasion and community structure in Californian serpentine grassland. Ecology, 71(2): 478-491.
Jacobi, C. M., 2005. Pollination Biology of the Exotic Rattleweed Crotalaria retusa L. (Fabaceae) in NE Brazil. Biotropica, 37(3): 357-363.
Jonathan, R. P., F. Eberhard, B. Miriam, N. van den Dries; F. Fabio, K. Michael, R. Ramtin, R. Daniela & B. Dorothea, 2008. Lindernia brevidens: a novel desiccation-tolerant vascular plant, endemic to ancient tropical rainforests. The Plant Journal: for cell and molecular biology, 54(5): 938-948.
Kühn I., M. Brandenburg, & S. Klotz, 2004. Why do alien plant species that reproduce in natural habitats occur more frequently? Diversity and Distributions, 10: 417-425.
Lambdon, P. W. & P. E. Hulme, 2006. Predicting the invasion success of Mediterranean alien plants from their introduction characteristics. Ecography, 29: 853-865.
Lee, J. T., 2003. Study on the Spread and Invasion of Leucaena leucocephala in Hengchung Area. M. S. Thesis. National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan. (In Chinese, with English abstract)
Lindemann, W. C. & C. R. Glover, 2003. Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes. New Mexico State University Extension Guide, A-129: 1-4.
Lloret, F., F. Médail, G. Brundu, I. Camarda, E. Moragues, J. Rita, P. Lambdon, & P. E. Hulme, 2005. Species attributes and invasion success by alien plants on Mediterranean islands. Journal of Ecology, 93: 512-520.
Lososová Z., M. Chytrý & I. Kühn, 2008. Plant attributes determining the regional abundance of weeds on central European arable land. Journal of Biogeography, 35(11): 177-187.
Lu, F. Y. & M. A. Chen, 2002. Exotic plants impact native plant community in Kenting National Park – As an example to Leucaena leucocepphala. Kenting National Park Headquarter Conservation Researching Report 112th.
Maron, J. L. & P. G. Connors, 1996. A native nitrogen-fixing shrub facilitates weed invasion. Oecologia, 105: 302-312.
Marrs, R. H. 1993. Soil fertility and nature conservation in Europe: theoretical considerations and practical management solutions. Advances in Ecological Research, 24: 241-300.
Morales, C. L. & M. A. Aizen, 2006. Invasive mutualisms and the structure of plant-pollinator interactions in the temperate forests of north-west Patagonia, Argentina. Journal of Ecology, 94: 171-180.
Owens, M. K. & G. W. Moore, 2007. Saltcedar Water Use: Realistic and Unrealistic Expectations. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 60 (5): 553-557.
Paker, M. A., W. Malek, & I. M. Paker, 2006. Growth of an invasive legume is symbiont limited in newly occupied habitats. Diversity and Distributions, 12: 563-571.
Pan, F. J., W. J. Shih, and F. C. Ma, 1993. The Effect of Sprouting Number on Coppice Regrowth in Leucaena leucocephala. Bulletin of Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, 8(3): 219-228. (In Chinese, with English summary)
Parveen, N., D. T. Webb, & D. Borthakur, 1996. Leucaena leucocephala nodules formed by a surface polysaccharide defective mutant of Rhizobium sp. strain TAL1145 are delayed in bacteroid development and nitrogen fixation. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions, 9(5): 364-372.
Pyšek, P., 1998. Is there a taxonomic pattern to plant invasions ? Oikos, 82: 282-294.
Pyšek, P., J. Sádlo, & B. Mandák, 2002. Catalogue of alien plants of the Czech Republic. Preslia, 74: 97-186.
Reinhart, K. O. & R. M. Callaway, 2006. Soil biota and invasive plants. New Phytologist, 170: 445-457.
Rejmánek, M. & D. M. Richardson, 1996. What Attributes Make Some Plant Species More Invasive ? Ecology, 77(6): 1655-1661.
Richardson, D. M., N. Allsopp, C. M. D’antonio, S. J. Milton, & M. Rejmánek, 2000a. Plant invasions – the role of mutualisms. Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 77: 65-93.
Richardson, D. M., P. Pyšek, M. Rejmánek, M. G. Barbour, F. D. Panetta, & C. J. West, 2000b. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions, 6: 93-107.
Schlaepfer, M. A., P. W. Sherman, B. Blossey & M. C. Runge, 2005. Introduced species as evolutionary traps. Ecology Letters, 8: 241-246.
Soltis, D. E., P. S. Soltis, D. R. Morgan, S. M. Swensen, B. C. Mullin, J, M, Dowd & P. G. Martin, 1995. Chloroplast gene sequence data suggest a single origin of the predisposition for symbiotic nitrogen fixation in angiosperms. PNAS, 92: 2647-2651.
Tedesco, S. B., M. Dall’Agnol, M. T. Schifino-Wittmann & J. F. M. Valls, 2000. Mode of reproduction of Brazilian species of Adesmia (Leguminosae). Genetics and Molecular Biology, 23(2): 475-478.
Vitousek, P. M. 1990. Biological invasions and ecosystem processes: towards an integration of population and ecosystem studies. Oikos, 57: 7-13.
Vitousek, P. M. & L. R. Walker, 1989. Biological invasion by Myrica faya in Hawai’i: plant demography, nitrogen fixation, ecosystem effects. Ecological Monographs, 59(3): 247-265.
Vitousek, P. M. 1994. Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology, 75: 1861-1876.
Williamson, M. H. & K. C. Brown, 1986. The analysis and modelling of British invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B. 314: 505-21.
Williamson, M. H. & A. Fitter, 1996. The Characters of Successful Invaders. Biological Conservation, 78: 163-170.
Wu, S. H., S. M. Chaw, & M. Rejmánek, 2003. Naturalized Fabaceae (Leguminosae) species in Taiwan: the first approximation. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 44: 59-66.
Wu, S. H., C. F. Hsieh, & M. Rejmánek, 2004a. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania, 49: 16-31.
Wu, S. H., C. F. Hsieh, S. M. Chaw, & M. Rejmánek, 2004b. Plant invasions in Taiwan: Insights from the flora of casual and naturalized alien species. Diversity and Distributions, 10: 349-362.
Wu, S. H., M. Rejmánek, E. Grotkopp, & J. M. DiTomaso, 2005a. Herbarium records, actual distribution, and critical attributes of invasive plants: genus Crotalaria in Taiwan. Taxon, 54(1): 133-138.
Wu, S. H. & H. H. Wang, 2005b. Potential Asteraceae invaders in Taiwan: Insights from the flora and herbarium records of casual and naturalized alien species. Taiwania, 50: 62-70.
Wu, S. H., 2006. Invasions and distributions of alien plants in Shei-Pa National Park: Wu-Ling and Shei-Jeng Districts. Shei-Pa National Park Headquarters Commission Plan, 33-38.
Wu, S. H., Y. C. Teng, S. M. Chaw, C. F. Hsieh, & K. C. Yang, submitted. Insights of doubled naturalized flora in six years.
Wu, S. H., J. K. Tsai, H. T. Sun, C. F. Chen, & Chiou, C. Y., submitted. Patterns of plant invasions in the protected and recreation areas of Shei-Pa National Park in Taiwan: a case of a subtropical montane national park.
Yoshida, K. & S. Oka, 2004. Invasion of Leucaena leucocephala and its effects on the native plant community in the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands. Weed Technology, 18:1371-1375.
Zahran, H. H., 2001. Rhizobia from wild legumes: Diversity, taxonomy, edology, nitrogen fixation and biotechnology. Journal of Biotechnology, 91: 143-153.
Zalba, S. M., M. I. Sonaglioni, C. A. Compagnoni, & C. J. Belenguer, 2000. Using a habitat model to assess the risk of invasion by an exotic plant. Biological Conservation, 93: 203-208.