人類動作表現的性別差異之研究歸納出環境與生理發展為主要影響因素，並且隨年齡之增加環境因素有益趨增高的影響力。環境因素諸如成人的期望與鼓勵等，形成男性比女性有較多的身體活動參與機會與活動時間，較豐富的經驗因此形成較高的自我效能，高自我效能的個體可以預測會有較高的參與程度、表現、以及持續努力的行為。根據自信心性別差異假說，女性在缺乏回饋的情境下會造成低自信心，表現因而不如男性，本研究旨在檢驗於動作表現後提供不同型式的回饋，對不同性別間自我效能的影響。以男、女大學生各30位為實驗參與者，隨機分成：（一）不提供回饋的控制組；（二）提供立即結果獲知的KR組；和（三）提供立即的表現獲知的處方性回饋之KP組等三組。依變項為參與者對垂直跳高動作的效能判斷。實驗結果經t考驗與獨立樣本二因子（性別 x 組別）變異數分析，結果發現：實驗處理後之交互作用未達統計上的顯著差異（F.95(2, 54) = 2.0, p < .05 , ES = 0.70, Power = 0.40），性別間的主要效果達顯著（F.95(1, 54) = 79.2, p < .05, ES = 0.59, Power = 1.00），組別間的主要效果也達顯著（F.95(2, 54) = 7.3, p < .05 , ES = 0.21, Power = 0.93），事後比較發現KR組分別與控制組及KP組間之差異達顯著，顯示KR回饋對效能判斷的影響高於無回饋以及KP回饋。依上述的結果，本研究所得的結論為：（一）KR有助於提升垂直跳高動作的自我效能，對男性的影響高於對女性；（二）KP無助於提升垂直跳高動作的自我效能，但是對女性的影響高於對男性。

Studies on gender differences in human motor performance conclude environment and biology factors have major influence. Moreover, environmental influence increases as a function of age. Environmental factors like adults’ expectation and encouragement lead males to have more physical activity participation opportunities, longer duration, and then formed higher level of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy predicts an individual’s participation, performance, and persistence. According to gender differences in self-confidence hypothesis, females are lack of confidence under ambiguous feedback situation. The purpose of this study was then to examine effects of different feedbacks on vertical jump (VJ) self-efficacy among male and female adults. Thirty each of college males and females were randomly assigned to: (1) control group without feedback, (2) KR group with immediate performance results feedback, (3) KP group with immediate prescriptive feedback. Dependent variable was VJ efficacy judgment. t-test and independent two-way ANOVA (gender x group) indicates that: no interaction (F.95(2, 54) = 2.0, p < .05, ES = 0.70, Power = 0.40), significant gender main effect (F.95(1, 54) = 79.2, p < .05, ES = 0.59, Power = 1.00), and significant group main effect (F.95(2, 54) = 7.3, p < .05 , ES = 0.21, Power = 0.93). Post hoc comparison found significant differences between KR group and both control and KP groups. It is concluded that: (1) KR increases VJ self-efficacy with larger effect on males; and (2) KP can not increase VJ self-efficacy, but has larger effect on females.

中文部分：
季力康（2000）。瞭解及增進運動動機-目標取向理論之運用。載於簡曜輝（主編），運動心理學（頁1-17）。台北市：中華民國體育學會。

黃麗卿、季瑋珠、鍾嫈嫈（1993）。某專校學生運動情況與運動傷害之調查。中華家醫誌，3（4），166-173。

劉翠薇（1995）。北縣某商專學生運動行為及其影響因素之研究。未出版碩士論文，國立臺灣師範大學，台北市。

劉翠薇、黃淑貞（1999）：北縣某商專運動行為及其影響因素之研究。學校衛生，34，1-32。

鍾志強（2000）。運動自我效能對大學生運動行為的影響。科技學刊，9（1），59-80。

英文部分：
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Blair, S. N., Haskell, W. L., Ho, P., Paffenbarger, R. S., Vranizan, K. M. Earquhar, J. W., & Wood, P. D. (1985). Assessment of habitual physical activity by a seven-day recall in a community survey and controlled experiments. American Journal of Epidemiology, 122, 794-804.

Chang, A., & Jwo, H. (2003). A developmental analysis of adults’ self-ability judgment accuracy in vertical jump [Abstract]. Book of Abstracts (Behavioral section p. 47A). Athens, Greece: VIIth IOC Olympic World Congress on Sport Sciences.

Clark, J. E., Philips, S. J., & Petersen, R. (1989). Developmental stability in jumping. Developmental Psychology, 25, 929-935.

Clifton, R. T., & Gill, D. L. (1994). Gender differences in self-confidence on a feminine-typed task. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16, 150-162.

Corbin, C. B. (1981). Sex of subject, sex of opponent, and opponent ability as factors affecting self-confidence in competitive situation. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 265-270.

Corbin, C. B., Landers, D. M., Feltz, D. L., & Senior, K. (1983). Sex differences in performance estimates: Female lack of self-confidence vs. male boastfulness. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54, 407-410.

Corbin, C. B., Stewart, M. J., & Blair, W. O. (1981). Self-confidence and motor performance of preadolescent boys and girls in different feedback situations. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 30-34.

Duda, J. L., & Hall, H. (2000). Achievement goal theory in sport: Recent extensions and future directions. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphy, & L. K. Tenant (Eds.). Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 417-443). New York: MacMillan.

Duncan, T., & McAuley, E. (1987). Efficacy expectations and perceptions of causality in motor performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 385-393.

Feltz, D. L. (1988a). Gender differences in the causal elements of self-efficacy on a high avoidance motor task. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 151-166.

Feltz, D. L. (1988b). Self-confidence and sport performance. In K. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews (pp. 423-457). New York: MacMillan.

Feltz, D. L., & Chase, M. A. (1998). The measurement of self-efficacy and confidence in sport. In J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advancements in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 63-78). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Feltz, D. L., & Riessinger, C. A. (1990). Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 132-143.

Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2002). Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Gill, D. L., Gross, J. B., Huddleston, S., & Shifflett, B. (1984). Sex differences in achievement cognitions and performance in competition. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 55, 340-346.

Griffin, N. S., & Keogh, J. F. (1982). A model for movement confidence. In J. A. S. Kelso & J. E. Clark (Eds.), The development of movement control and coordination (pp. 213-236). New York: Wiley.

Hellebranndt, F. A., Rarick, G. L., Glassow, R., & Carns, M. L. (1961). Physiological analysis of basic motor skills: Growth and development of jumping. American Journal of Physical Medicine, 40, 14-25.

Horn, T. S., & Weiss, M. R. (1991). A developmental analysis of children’s self-ability judgments in the physical domain. Pediatric Exercise Science, 3, 310-326.

Isaacs, L., Pohlman R., & Hall, T. (2003). Vertical jump performance standards in children: An update. Strategies, 33-35.

Kitisook, R. (1992). The effects of gender and the use of information on the development of self-confidence during early stages of learning a motor task. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston, Texas.

Kollias, I., Hatzitaki, V., Papaiakovou G., & Giatsis, G. (2001). Using principle components analysis to identify individual differences in vertical jump performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72, 63-67.

Lee, A. M., Hall, E. G., & Carter, J. A. (1983). Age and sex differences in expectancy for success among American children. The Journal of Psychology, 113, 35-39.

Lenny, E. (1977). Women’s self-confidence in achievement situations. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 1-13.

Lirgg, C. D. (1991). Gender differences in self-confidence in physical activity: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 8, 294-310.

Lirgg, C. D., & Feltz, D. L. (1989). Female self-confidence in sport: Myths, realities and enhancement strategies. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 60, 49-54.

Lirgg, C. D., George, T. R., Chase, M. A., & Ferguson, R. H. (1996). Impact of conception of ability and sex-type of task on male and female self-efficacy. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 426-434.

Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Moritz, S. E., Feltz, D. L., Fahrbach, K. R., & Mack, D. E. (2000). The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: A meta-analytic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 280-294.

Petruzzello, S. J., & Corbin, C. B. (1988). The effects of performance feedback on female self-confidence. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 174-183.

Philips, D. (1987). Socialization of perceived academic competence among highly competent children. Child Development, 58, 1308-1320.

Poe, A. (1976). Description of the movement characteristics of two-year-old children performing the jump and reach. The Research Quarterly, 47, 260-268.

Rudisill, M. E. (1988). Sex differences in various cognitive and behavioral parameters in a competitive situation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19, 296-310.

Rudisill, M. E. (1989). Influence of perceived competence and causal dimension orientation on expectations, persistence, and performance during perceived failure. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60, 166-175.

Sanguinetti, C., Lee, A. M., & Nelson, J. (1985). Reliability estimates and age and gender comparisons of expectations of success in sex-typed activities. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, 379-388.

Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based learning approach (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Smoll, F. L., & Schutz, R. W. (1990). Quantifying gender differences in physical performance: a developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 26, 360-369.

Sparling B. P., & Snow K. T. (2002). Physical activity pattern in recent college alumni. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73, 200-205.

Stewart, M. J., & Corbin, C. B. (1988). Feedback dependence among low confidence preadolescent boys and girls. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59, 160-164.

Thomas, J. R., & French, K. E. (1985). Gender differences across age in motor performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 260-282.

Thomas, J. R., Lochbaum, M. R., Landers, D. M., & He, C. (1997). Planning significant and meaningful research in exercise science: estimating sample size. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 681, 33-43.

Tomioka, M., Owings T. M., & Grabiner, M. D. (2001). Lower extremity strength and coordination are independent contributors to maximum vertical jump height. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 17, 181-187.

Tsiokanos, A., Kellis, E., Jamurtas, A., & Kellis, S. (2002). The relationship between jumping performance and isokinetic strength of hip and knee extensors and ankle plantar flexors. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 10, 107-115.

Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport-confidence and competitive orientation: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 221-246.

Weinberg, R., Gould, D., & Jackson, A. (1979). Expectations and performance: An empirical test of Bandura’s self-efficacy theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 320-331.

Weinberg, R. S., Yukelson, D., & Jackson, A. (1980). Effect of public and private efficacy expectations on competitive performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2, 340-349.

Wickstrom, R. L. (1983). Fundamental motor patterns (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.