本研究旨在編製一具有信效度之曲調聽視測驗，並實際施測於臺北市國小六年級學生，瞭解學生在聽視能力的表現情形，進一步分析不同性別、音樂學習經驗等背景學生於測驗表現之差異情形。本研究採用「測驗調查法」，以文獻探討與教科書分析為測驗編製之基礎，之後以自編之曲調聽視能力測驗為研究工具，透過分區方便取樣的方式由研究者親自進行施測，共發出340份測驗，回收有效測驗卷達100%。
本研究之主要發現如下：
一、自編之曲調聽視能力測驗具有信度與效度，試題之鑑別度良好且困難度分配平均。
二、學生於「輪廓辨識」答對率高於「音程辨譜」。
三、學生於「輪廓辨識」之辨別圖形與圖譜間答對率之差異不明顯，「音程辨譜」之辨
　　別「音域位置」較辨別「音程距離」與「音高排列」容易。
四、學生於「輪廓辨識」中依不同聽視辨別形式其答對率表現上有差異。
五、學生於「輪廓辨識」中，〈上行〉的答對率高於〈下行〉，〈先上再下〉的答對率
　　高於〈先下再上〉。
六、學生於「音程辨譜」試題中，辨別音程距離相近之樂譜較為容易。
七、學生於「音程辨譜」試題中，能夠根據譜例前後音域位置進行選項判斷。
八、不同性別之學生表現情形無顯著差異。
九、不同音樂學習經驗的學生表現情形具有顯著差異。

最後研究者根據研究結果，對教育相關單位、教科書編輯單位、音樂教師以及未來相關研究提出相關建議。

關鍵詞：音樂測驗、曲調感知、聽視辨別

This research aims to design a reliable and valid aural-visual tonal test for sixth graders in Taipei City. The differences of the music aural-visual discrimination abilities between the female and male students with different musical backgrounds were analyzed and discussed.
The test was designed by the researcher and reviewed by music experts. The content of the test was based on the textbooks and national music standards. Before 340 sixth graders in Taipei City joined this study, this music test had been applied to 73 sixth graders and was revised in the pilot study.

The results are as follows:
1. This aural-visual tonal test was proved to be a test with good validity and reliability. The item difficulty and discrimination power of each test item were well-designed.
2. Students could identify melodic contours better than intervals .
3. There was not much difference for students to identify melodic contour thru figures or precise notations. To recognize the ranges of music was easier than to identify the precise pitches of the music for students.
4. Students performed differently on music coutour discrimination according to different aural and visual inputs of the test.
5. For contour discrimination, students had more correct responds for upward melodies than downward melodies. Moreover, students performed better on the upward-to-downward than downward-to-upward music statements.
6. For interval discrimination, identifying notations of smaller intervals were easier for students.
7. For interval discrimination, students might give the answers based on the melodic ranges of proceeding music.
8. There was no significant difference between genders.
9. Students performed differently according to their musical backgrounds.

Many suggestions based on the results were given for educators, government, textbook editors, and researchers in the future.

Keywords: music test, melody perception, aural-visual discrimination

一、中文部份
心理與教育測驗研究發展中心（2012）。國民中學學生學習成就評量標準（試行版）：藝術與人文學習領域。臺北市：國立臺灣師範大學。
王德愉（2007）。臺北地區國民小學音樂社團現況之調查研究（未出版之碩士論文）。臺北市立教育大學，臺北市。
余民寧（1997）。教育測驗與評量：成就測驗與教學評量（第一版）。臺北市：心理。
余民寧（2006）。潛在變項模式：SIMPLIS的應用。臺北市：高等教育。
余民寧（2009）。試題反應理論IRT及其應用。臺北市：心理。
余民寧（2013）。教育測驗與評量：成就測驗與教學評量（第三版）。臺北市：心理。
吳美玲（2001）。兒歌在幼兒音樂課中的觀察與分析研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
吳清山（2009）。教育111的理念，載於吳清山等，臺北市教育111學校經營手冊（頁2-11）。臺北市：臺北市教師研習中心。
吳清山、張煌熙、林天佑、張玉燕、陳麗華、林建民、李玉貴（1997）。國民小學新課程標準內容分析研究。臺北市：教育部。
吳舜文（2010）。音樂行為的心理學基礎及教育應用。載於吳舜文（主編），音樂教育學術研討會論文集（75-85頁）。臺北市：國立臺灣師範大學。
吳裕益、陳英豪（2001）。測驗與評量。高雄市：復文。
李君儀（2004）。國小四年級兒童曲調聽音能力之調查研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台北師範學院，臺北市。
李茂能（2006）。結構方程模式軟體Amos之簡介及其在測驗編製上之應用。臺北市：心理。
林璿姿（2008）。內在聽音訓練對兒童曲調感知能力之影響（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
邱皓政（2002）。量化研究與統計分析：SPSS中文視窗版資料分析範例解析。臺北市：五南。
邱皓政（2003）。結構方程模式：LISREL的理論、技術與應用。臺北市：雙葉。
邱皓政（2012）。量化研究法（三）測驗原理與量表發展技術。臺北市：雙葉書廊。
邱皓政（2014）。量化研究與統計分析SPSS（PASW）資料分析範例。臺北市：五南。
姚世澤（1993）。音樂教育與音樂行為－理論基礎及方法論。臺北市：偉文。
姚世澤（2002）。音樂教育與音樂行為－理論基礎及方法論。臺北市：師大書苑。
孫邦正、鄒季婉（1962）。心理與教育測驗。臺北市：臺灣商務印書館。
徐彩淑（2005）。社團參與態度、社團凝聚力與人際關係之相關研究-以台北縣參與社團國中生為例（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺灣師範大學，臺北市。
國家教育研究院（2014）。十二年國民基本教育課程綱要總綱（草案）。臺北市：國家教育研究院。
張純鈞（2009）。音樂資優班學生音樂性向與學習成就之相關研究--以宜蘭縣國小音樂才能資優班為例（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
張偉豪（2011）。論文寫作-SEM不求人。臺北市：鼎茂。
張惠雯（2003）。國小四年級音樂評量編製（未出版之碩士論文）。國立屏東師範學院，屏東市。
張渝役（譯）（1996）。音樂測驗與評量（原著P. R. Lehman）。臺北市：國立編譯館。（原著出版年：1968）。
張蕙慧（1995）。兒童音樂教育與心理學關係析論。新竹師院學報，8，137-164。
張麗麗（2002）。藝術與人文領域的教學評量。載於黃壬來（主編），藝術與人文教育（579-636頁）。臺北市：桂冠圖書出版公司。
教育部（1952）。國民學校課程標準。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（1962）。國民學校修訂課程標準。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（1968）。國民小學暫行課程標準。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（1975）。國民小學課程標準。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（1993）。國民小學課程標準。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（2000）。國民中小學九年一貫課程暫行綱要。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（2001）。國民中小學九年一貫課程暫行綱要。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（2002）。挑戰2008國家發展重點計畫－e世代人才培育。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（2003）。國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要－藝術與人文學習領域。臺北市：教育部。
教育部（2008）。國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要－藝術與人文學習領域。臺北市：教育部。
莊惠君（譯）（2000）。幼兒音樂教學原理（原著E. Gordon）。臺北市：心理。（原著出版年：1997）
許瑾翎（2004）。中部地區國民小學學生調式旋律辨認之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台北師範學院，臺北市。
郭生玉（1985）。心理與教育測驗。臺北市：精華。
郭芳吟（2013）。國小學童聽覺完形組織法則表現情形之調查研究（未出版之碩士論文）。臺北市立大學，臺北市。
郭靜姿、吳舜文、蘇郁惠、曹錦慧、王珮萱（2006）。國民中小學音樂性向測驗指導手冊。臺北市：教育部特殊教育小組。
陳李綢、盧欽銘、陳淑美（1981）。我國國小學生音樂性向之研究。師大教育心理學報，14，103-114。
陳淑美（1993）。音樂能力測驗的發展。載於中國測驗學會（主編），心理測驗的發展與應用（81-106頁）。臺北市：心理。
程緯華（1994）。聽音能力之發展暨影響因素分析。臺北市：五四。
程緯華（1997）。行政院國家科學委員會補助專題研究報告：兒童聽音能力之發展與聽音教育。臺北市：國科會微縮小組。NSC85-2413-H026-001。
黃怡娟（2004）。國小五年級學生聽辨二聲部曲調能力之研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立台北師範學院，臺北市。
黃芳銘（2007）。結構方程模式理論與應用（五版）。臺北市：五南。
黃愍惠（2003）。國小學童課外音樂學習之有關研究（未出版之碩士論文）。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
黃鈺婷（2004）。音感能力面面觀。 師友月刊，446，60-62。
楊文碩（1993）。器樂教學提升國小五年級學童音感及節奏能力-以直笛為例（未出版之碩士論文）。屏東市：國立屏東師範學院。
葛樹人（2011）。心理測驗學（三版）。臺北市：桂冠圖書。
臺北市政府教育局（2004）。臺北市國民小學課外社團作業要點。臺北市：臺北市教育局。
臺北市政府教育局（2009）。臺北教育111標竿學校認證及獎勵要點。臺北市：臺北市教育局。
劉英淑（1995）。國民小學音樂科新課程的精神與特色及實施之相關配合作法。研習資訊，12（5），33-40。
潘宇文（2011）。學校歌唱教學內涵與實務之研究。臺北市：五南圖書。
賴美鈴（2011）。戰後臺灣學校音樂教育的發展：以音樂課程標準的變革為中心。載於臺灣百年來學校藝術教育發展（頁170-189）〔CD〕。臺北市：臺灣藝術教育館。
簡茂發（1987）。心理測驗與統計方法。臺北市：心理。
蘇郁惠（1998）。兒童音樂性向測驗及其相關因素之研究（未出版之博士論文）。國立政治大學，臺北市。
 
二、英文部份
Abeles, H. F., Hoffer, C. R., & Klotman, R. H. (1995). Foundations of music education (2th ed.). New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Adams, C. R. (1976). Melodic contour typology. Ethnomusicology, 20(2), 179-215.
Ahmann, J. S., & Glock, M. D. (1981). Evaluating student progress: principles of tests and Measurements. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Aiello, R. (1994). Introduction: Melodic contour in hearing and remembering melodies. In R. Aiello & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical perceptions (pp.173-176). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Anderson, J., & Gerbing, D. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological bulletin, 103(3), 411-423.
Attneave, F., & Olson, R. K. (1971). Pitch as a medium: A new approach to psychophysical scaling. The American journal of psychology, 84(2), 147-166.
Bagozzi, R., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 16(1), 74-94.
Bamberger, J. S. (1995). The mind behind the musical ear: How children develop musical intelligence. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Boardman, E., & Andress, B. (1981). The music book. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Boardman, E., & Andress, B., Pautz, M. P., & Willman, R. (1998). Music: Teachers edition. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bod, R. (2002). A unified model of structural organization in language and music. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 17, 289-308.
Bollen, K. A., & Stine, R. A. (1992). Bootstrapping goodness-of-fit measures in structural equation models. Sociological Methods& Research, 21(2), 205-229.
Bower, G. H., & Hilgard, E. R. (1981). Theories of learning (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Boyle, J. D. & Radocy, R. E. (1987). The measurement and evaluation of musical experiences. New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Boyle, J. D.(1992). Evaluation of music ability. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 247-265). New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Brodsky, W., Kessler, Y., Rubinstein, B. S., Ginsborg, J., & Henik, A. (2008). The mental representation of music notation: notational audiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(2), 427.
Brophy, T. S. (2000). Assessing the developing child musician: A guide for general music teachers (p. xiii481). Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Campbell, P., & Scott-Kassner, C. (2013). Music in childhood: From preschool through the elementary grades. Boston, MA : Cengage Learning.
Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment (Vol. 17). New York, NY: Sage Publications.
Cassidy, J. (2001). Listening maps: Undergraduate students' ability to interpret various iconic representations. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 19 (2), 15-19.
Choksy, L., Abramson, R. M., Gillespie, A. E., Woods, D., & York, F. (2001). Teaching music in the twenty-first century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Chuang, W. C. (1997). An investigation of the use of music aptitude profile with Taiwanese students in grades four to twelve. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
Consortium of National Arts Education Associations (1994). National Standards for Arts Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Cope, D. (1998). Signatures and earmarks: Computer recognition of patterns in music. Computing in musicology: a directory of research, 11, 129-138.
Costanza, A. P. (1971). Programed instruction in score reading skills. Journal of Research in Music Education, 453-459.
Croonen, W. L. M. (1994). Effects of length, tonal structure, and contour in the recognition of tone series. Perception & Psychophysics, 55(6), 623-632.
Cuddy, L. L. (1971). Absolute judgment of musically-related pure tones. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 25(1), 42-55.
Cuddy, L. L., Cohen, A. J., & Miller, J. (1979). Melody recognition: The experimental application of musical rules. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 33(3), 148.
Cuddy, L. L. & Upitis, R. (1992). Aural perception. In R. Cowell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 333-343). New York, NY: Schirmer Book.
Davidson, L., McKernon, P., & Gardner, H. (1981). The acquisition of song: A developmental approach. In Documentary report of the Ann Arbor Symposium (pp. 301-315). Reston, VA: MENC.
Davidson, L., & Colley, B. (1987). Children's rhythmic development from age 5-7: Performance, notation, and reading of rhythmic patterns. In J. C. Peery, I. W. Peery, & T. W. Draper (Eds.), Music and child development (pp. 107-136). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Davidson, L., & Scripp, L. (1988). Young children's musical representations: Windows on cognition. In J. A. Sloboda (Ed.), Generative processes in music: The psychology of performance, improvisation, and composition (pp. 195-230). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Davidson, L., & Scripp, L. (1992). Surveying the coordinates of cognitive skills in music. In R. Cowell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 392-411). New York, NY: Schirmer Book.
De Gainza, V. H. (1970). Absolute and relative hearing as innate complementary functions of man's musical ear. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 13-16.
Deliège, I., & Sloboda, J. A. (Eds.). (2004). Perception and cognition of music. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
De Roure, D. C. & Blackburn, S. G. (2000). Content based retrieval and navigation of music using melodic pitch contours. Multimedia Systems, 8(3), 190-200
Deutsch, D. (1972). Effect of repetition of standard and of comparison tones on recognition memory for pitch. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 93(1), 156.
Deutsch, D., & Boulanger, R. C. (1984). Octave equivalence and the processing of tonal sequences. Music perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3, 40-51.
Deutsch, D. (1999). The psychology of music (2th ed.). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Deutsch, D. (2013). The psychology of music (5th ed.). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Domer, J., & Gromko, J. E. (1996). Qualitative changes in preschoolers' invented notations following music instruction. Contributions to Music Education, 23, 62-78.
Dowling, W. J., & Fujitani, D. S. (1971). Contour, interval, and pitch recognition in memory for melodies. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 49(2B), 524-531.
Dowling, W. J. (1978). Scale and contour: Two components of a theory of memory for melodies. Psychological review, 85(4), 341.
Dowling, W. J. (1982). Melodic information processing and its development. In Deutsch, D. (Ed.), The psychology of music (pp.412-428). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Dowling, W. J., & Harwood, D. L. (1986). Music cognition. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Drexler, E. N. (1938). A study of the development of the ability to carry a melody at the preschool level. Child Development, 9, 319-332.
Duell, O. K., & Anderson, R. C. (1967). Pitch discrimination among primary school children. Journal of educational psychology, 58(6), 315-318.
Dyson, M. C. & Watkins, A. J. (1984). A figurai approach to the role of melodic contour in melody recognition. Perception & Psychophysics, 35, 477-488.
Edworthy, J. (1982). Pitch and contour in music processing. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind & Brain, 2(1), 44-46.
Edworthy, J. ( 1985). Melodic contour and musical structure. In P. Howell, I. Cross, & R. West( Eds.), Musical structure and cognition(pp. 169-188). London, UK: Academic Press.
Espinoza-Varas, B., & Watson, C. S. (1989). Perception of complex auditory patterns by humans. In R. J., Dooling & S. H. Hulse (Eds.), The comparative psychology of audition: Perceiving complex sounds (pp. 67-94). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fiske, H . E. (1982). Chronometric analysis of selected pattern discrimination tasks in music listening. Psychology of Music, 10(1), 37-47.
Fiske, H . E. (1985). Cognition strategies in music listening. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 85, 56-64.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18, 39-50.
Friberg, A., & Ahlbäck, S. (2009). Recognition of the main melody in a polyphonic symbolic score using perceptual knowledge. Journal of New Music Research, 38(2), 155-169.
Furneaux, S., & Land, M. F. (1999). The effects of skill on the eye–hand span during musical sight–reading. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 266(1436), 2435-2440.
Fyk, J. (1982a). Perception of mistuned intervals in melodic context. Psychology of Music. Special edition, 36-41.
Fyk, J. (1982b). Tolerance of intonation deviation in melodic intervals in listeners of different musical training. Archives of Acoustics Quarterly, 7(1), 13-28.
Gembris, H. (2002). The development of music abilities. In R. Cowell & C. Richardson (Eds.), New handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 487-508). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Gómez, E., Klapuri, A., & Meudic, B. (2003). Melody description and extraction in the context of music content processing. Journal of New Music Research, 32(1), 23-40.
Goolsby, T. W. (1994). Eye movement in music reading: Effects of reading ability, notational complexity, and encounters. Music perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12(1), 77-96.
Gordon, E. (1971). The psychology of music teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gordon, E. (1978). A factor analytic study of tonal and rhythm patterns. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (1987). The nature description, measurement, and evaluation of music aptitudes. Chicago, IL : GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (1993). Learning sequences in music: Skills, content, and patterns. A music learning theory. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (1997). A music learning theory for newborn and young Children. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (1998). Introduction to research and the psychology of music. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (2001). Iowa Tests of Music Literacy: Manual. GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (2003). Learning sequences in music: Skill, content, and patterns: A music learning theory. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Gordon, E. (2004). The aural/visual experience of music literacy: Reading and writing music notation. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Goto, M., & Hayamizu, S. (1999, August). A real-time music scene description system: Detecting melody and bass lines in audio signals. In Working Notes of the IJCAI-99 Workshop on Computational Auditory Scene Analysis (pp. 31-40).
Goto, M. (2004). A real-time music-scene-description system: Predominant-F0 estimation for detecting melody and bass lines in real-world audio signals. Speech Communication, 43(4), 311-329.
Gromko, J. E. (1994). Children's invented notations as measures of musical understanding. Psychology of Music, 22, 136-147.
Gromko, J. E. (1996). In a child's voice: An interpretive interaction with young composers. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 128, 37-58.
Gromko, J. E., & Poorman, A. S. (1998). Developmental trends and relationships in children's aural perception and symbol use. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46(1), 16-23.
Gromko, J. E., & Russell, C. (2002). Relationships among young children's aural perception, listening condition, and accurate reading of graphic listening maps. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50(4), 333-342.
Gromko, J. E. (2004). Predictors of music sight-reading ability in high school wind players. Journal of research in music education, 52(1), 6-15.
Grutzmacher, P. A. (1987). The effect of tonal pattern training on the aural perception, reading recognition, and melodic sight-reading achievement of first-year instrumental music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 35(3), 171-181.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Haladyna, T. M. (2012). Developing and validating multiple-choice test items. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hansen, D., Bernstorf, E., & Stuber, G. M. (2014). The music and literacy connection. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hargreaves, D. J. & Zimmerman, M. P. (1992). Developmental theories of music learning. In R. Cowell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 377-391). New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Harper. R. (1989). Specific techniques for teaching learning sequence activities by level of learning. In D. L. Walters & C. C. Taggart (Eds.), Reading in music learning theory (pp.113-127). Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Harrison, C. S., Asmus, E. P., & Serpe, R. T. (1994). Effects of musical aptitude, academic ability, music experience, and motivation on aural skills. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(2), 131-144.
Harwood, D. L. (1976). Universals in music: A perspective from cognitive psychology. Ethnomusicology, 20(3), 521-533.
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior. New York, NY: Wiley.
Helmholtz, H. L. (2009). On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Holahan, J. M., & Saunders, T. C. (1997). Children's discrimination of tonal patterns: Pattern contour, response time, and item difficulty level. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 132, 85-101.
Holahan, J. M., Saunders, T. C., & Goldberg, M. D. (2000). Tonal cognition in pattern discrimination: Evidence from three populations. Journal of Research in Music Education, 48(2), 162-177.
Hoshovs'kyj, V. (1965). The experiment of systematizing and cataloguing folk tunes following the principles of musical dialectology and cybernetics. Studia Musicologica, 273-286.
Huron, D. (2006). Sweet anticipation: Music and the psychology of expectation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Jacobi, B. S. (2012). Kodaly, literacy, and the brain: Preparing young music students to read pitch on the staff. General Music Today, 25(2), 11-18.
Jones, M. R., Johnston, H. M., & Puente, J. (2006). Effects of auditory pattern structure on anticipatory and reactive attending. Cognitive psychology, 53(1), 59-96.
Jones, M. R. (2010). Music perception: Current research and future directions. In M. R. Jones & R. Fay (Eds.), Music perception (pp. 1-12). New York, NY: Springer.
Joreskog, K., & Sorbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7: A guide to the program and applications. SSI.
Kennedy, M. (1980). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of　Music. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
Kim, Y. E., Chai, W., Garcia, R., & Vercoe, B. (2000, October). Analysis of a Contour-based Representation for Melody. In ISMIR.
Kolers, P. A., Duchnicky, R. L., & Sundstroem, G. (1985). Size in the visual processing of faces and words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(6), 726.
Kolinski, M. (1965). The general direction of melodic movement. Ethnomusicology, 9(3), 240-264.
Krumhansl, C. L. (1990). Cognitive foundations of musical pitch (Vol. 17). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Krumhansl, C. L. (1991). Music psychology: Tonal structures in perception and memory. Annual review of psychology, 42(1), 277-303.
Lannert, V., & Ullman, M. (1945). Factors in the reading of piano music. The American Journal of Psychology, 58(1), 91-99.
LaRue, J. (1964). Symbols for melodic description. Ethnomusicology, 8(2), 165-166.
Lehman, P. R. (1968). Tests and measurements in music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lehmann, A. C., & Ericsson, K. A. (1993). Sight-reading ability of expert pianists in the context of piano accompanying. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind & Brain, 12(2), 182-195.
Lehmann, A. C., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996). Performance without preparation: Structure and acquisition of expert sight-reading and accompanying performance. Psychomusicology: A journal of research in music cognition, 15(1-2), 1-29.
Lemström, K., & Laine, P. (1998, October). Musical information retrieval using musical parameters. In Proceedings of the 1998 International Computer Music Conference (pp. 341-348).
Leonhard, C., & House, R. W. (1972). Foundations and principles of music education. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Levitin, O. J. (1999). Memory for musical attributes. In P. R. Cook (Ed.), Music, cognition, and computerized sound: An introduction to psychoacoustics (pp.209-227). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Levy, K. (2001). Music readers and notation: Investigation of an interactive model of rhythm reading (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database.(UMI No. 3034122).
Lin, M. Y. (1999). The effect of teaching representational notation versus conventional notation on music reading skills of third grade students in Taiwan (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois .
Lindsay, A. T. (1996). Using contour as a mid-level representation of melody (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
Lomax, A., & American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1968). Folk song style and culture (Vol. 88). New York, NY: Transaction Publishers.
Lundin, R. W. (1967). An objective psychology of music (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Ronald Press.
MacKnight, C. B. (1975). Music reading ability of beginning wind instrumentalists after melodic instruction. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23(1), 23-34.
Mark, M. L. (1986). Contemporary music education. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Marvin, E. W., & Laprade, P. A. (1987). Relating musical contours: Extensions of a theory for contour. Journal of Music Theory, 31(2), 225-267.
McDonald, D. T., & Ramsey, J. H. (1979). A study of musical auditory information processing of preschool children. Contributions to Music Education, 7, 2-11.
McPherson, G., & Gabrielsson, A. (2002). From sound to sign. In R. Parncutt & G. McPherson (Eds.), The science & psychology of music performance: Creative strategies for teaching and learning. New York: Oxford University Press.
Merriam, A. P. (2011). Ethnomusicology of the Flathead Indians. New York, NY: Transaction Publishers.
Miller, L. K., & Clausen, H. (1997). Pitch identification in children and adults: Naming and discrimination. Psychology of Music, 25(1), 4-17.
Monahan, C. B., & Carterette, E. C. (1985). Pitch and duration as determinants of musical space. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3(1), 1-32.
Moore, R. S. (1994). Effects of age, sex, and melodic/harmonic patterns on vocal pitch-matching skills of talented 8-11-year-olds. Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(1), 5-13.
Morris, R. D. (1993). New directions in the theory and analysis of musical contour. Music Theory Spectrum, 15(2), 205-228.
Murphy, H. A. (1950). Teaching Musicianship. New York, NY: Coleman-Ross Company.
Mursell, J. L. (1937). Psychology of music. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Mursell, J. L. (1956). Music education, principles and programs. New York, NY: Silver Burdett .
Nettheim, N. (1992). On the spectral analysis of melody. Journal of New Music Research, 21(2), 135-148.
Ortmann, O. (1926). On the melodic relativity of tones. Psychological Monographs, 35(1), 1-35.
Pearce, M., & Wiggins, G. (2012). Auditory expectation: The information dynamics of music perception and cognition. Topics in Cognitive Science, 4, 625-652.
Peretz, I., & Babaï, M. (1992). The role of contour and intervals in the recognition of melody parts: Evidence from cerebral asymmetries in musicians. Neuropsychologia, 30(3), 277-292.
Petzold, R. G. (1960). The perception of music symbols in music reading by normal children and by children gifted musically. The Journal of Experimental Educational, 28(4), 271-319.
Phillips, K. H. (1996). Teaching singers to sight-read. Teaching Music, 3(6), 32-33.
Phillips, K. H. (2004). Directing the choral music program. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Piaget, J.(1970).The Child's Conception of Movement and Speed. Translated from the French by Holloway, G. E. T. and Mackenzie, M. J., Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. (originally published,1946).
Polansky, L., & Bassein, R. (1992). Possible and impossible melody: Some formal aspects of contour. Journal of Music Theory, 36 (2), 259-284.
Povel, D. J., & Essens, P. (1985). Perception of temporal patterns. Music perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(4), 411-440.
Quinn, I. (1997). Fuzzy extensions to the theory of contour. Music Theory Spectrum, 19, 232-263.
Quinn, I. (1999). The combinatorial model of pitch contour. Music perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 16(4), 439-456.
Radocy, R. E., & Boyle, J. D. (1997). Psychological foundations of music behavior (5th ed.). Springfeild, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher.
Radocy, R. E., & Boyle, J. D. (2012). Psychological foundations of musical behavior (5th ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas, Publisher. (R & B: 6)
Ramsey, J. H. (1983). The effects of age, singing ability, and instrumental experiences on preschool children's melodic perception. Journal of Research in Music Education, 31(2), 133-145.
Raphael, C., & Stoddard, J. (2004). Functional harmonic analysis using probabilistic models. Computer Music Journal, 28(3), 45-52.
Rasch, R. A. (1985). Perception of melodic and harmonic intonation of two-part musical fragments. Music Perception : An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(4), 441-458.
Robert F. DeVellis. (2012). Scale development: Theory and applications (Vol. 26). New York, NY: Sage publications.
Rogers, G. L. (1996). Effect of colored rhythmic notation on music-reading skills of elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(1), 15-25.
Runfola, M., & Swanwick, K. (2002). Developmental characteristics of music learners. In R. Cowell & C. Richardson (Eds.), New handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 373-393). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Sadakata, M., Desain, P., & Honing, H. (2006). The Bayesian way to relate rhythm perception and production. Music Perception : An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23(3), 269-288.
Schillinger, J. (1978). The Schillinger system of musical composition. New York, NY: Da Capo Press.
Schmuckler, M. A. (1999). Testing models of melodic contour similarity. Music Perception : An Interdisciplinary Journal, 16(3), 295-326.
Schmuckler, M. A. (2009). Components of music processing. In S. Hollam, I.Cross, & M. Thaut(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music psychology(pp. 93-106). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Schön, D., Anton, J. L., Roth, M., & Besson, M. (2002). An fMRI study of music sight-reading. Neuroreport, 13(17), 2285-2289.
Schwadron, (1967). Aesthetics: Dimensions for music education. Washington, DC: Music Educators National Conference.
Seeger, C. (1960). On the moods of a music-logic. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 13(1/3), 224-261.
Selfridge-Field, E. (1998). Conceptual and representational issues in melodic comparison. Computing in musicology: a directory of research, 11, 3-64.
Serafine, M. L. (1988). Music as cognition: The development of thought in sound. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Sergeant, D., & Roche, S. (1973). Perceptual shifts in the auditory information processing of young children. Psychology of Music, 1(2), 39-48.
Sergent, J., Zuck, E., Terriah, S., & MacDonald, B. (1992). Distributed neural network underlying musical sight-reading and keyboard performance. Science, 257(5066), 106-109.
Shuter-Dyson, R., & Gabriel, C. (1981). The psychology of musical ability. London, UK: Routledge.
Siegmeister, E. (1965). Harmony and melody (Vol. 1). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Sloboda, J. A. (1974). The eye-hand span--An approach to the study of sight reading. Psychology of Music, 2(2), 4-10.
Sloboda, J. A. (1977). Phrase units as determinants of visual processing in music reading. British Journal of Psychology, 68(1), 117-124.
Sloboda, J. A. (1978). The psychology of music reading. Psychology of Music, 6(2), 3-20.
Sloboda, J. A. (1984). Experimental studies of music reading: A review. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2(2), 222-236.
Sloboda, J. A. (1985). The musical mind: The cognitive psychology of music. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Smith, J. D., Nelson, D. G. K., Grohskopf, L. A., & Appleton, T. (1994). What child is this? What interval was that? Familiar tunes and music perception in novice listeners. Cognition, 52(1), 23-54.
Smith, K. C., Cuddy, L. L., & Upitis, R. (1994). Figural and metric understanding of rhythm. Psychology of Music, 22, 117-135.
Smith, L. A., McNab, R. J., & Witten, I. H. (1998). Sequence-based melodic comparison: a dynamic programming approach. In W. B. Hewlett & E. Selfridge-Field (Eds.), Melodic similarity: concepts, procedures, and applications (pp. 101-118). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Solomon, L. (1997). Music theory glossary. Retrived from http://solomonsmusic.net/glossary.htm
Stoffer, T. H. (1985). Representation of phrase structure in the perception of music. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 3(2), 191-220.
Taylor, J. A. (1971). Perception of music intervals within melodic context(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Temperley, D. (2007). Music and probability. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Temperley, D. (2014). Probabilistic models of melodic interval. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 32(1), 85-99.
Thompson, W. F. & Schellenberg, E. G. (2002). Cognitive constraints on music listening. In R. Cowell (Ed.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp.461-486). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Thomson, W. F. (2004). From sounds to music: the contextualizations of pitch. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 431-456.
Toch, E. (1977). The shaping forces in music: an inquiry into the nature of harmony, melody, counterpoint, form. Courier Corporation.
Torzadeh, G., Koufteros, X., & Pflughoeft, K. (2003). Confirmatory analysis of computer self-efficacy. Structural Equation Modeling, 10(2), 263-275.
Tovey, D. F. (2007). The forms of music. Yoakum Press.
Trehub, S. E., Bull, D., & Thorpe, L. A. (1984). Infants' perception of melodies: The role of melodic contour. Child development, 55(3), 821-830.
Trehub, S. E., Morrongiello, B. A., & Thorpe, L. A. (1985). Children's perception of familiar melodies: The role of intervals, contour, and key. Psychomusicology: A Journal of Research in Music Cognition, 5(1-2), 39.
Tsuzaki, M. (1991). Effects of the preceding scale on melodic interval judgment in terms of equality and size. Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9(1), 47-70.
Upitis, R. (1987). Children's understanding of rhythm: The relationship between development and music training. Psychomusicology, 7(1), 41-60.
Upitis, R. (1990). Children's invented notations of familiar and unfamiliar melodies. Psychomusicology, 8(2), 151-161.
Walker, R. (1978). Perception and music notation. Psychology of Music, 6(1), 21-46.
Walker, R. (1992). Auditory-visual perception and musical behavior. In R. Cowell (Ed.), Handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 344-359). New York, NY: Schirmer Book.
Walters, D. L. (1989). Readings in music learning theory. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications.
Wapnick, J., Bourassa, G., & Sampson, J. (1982). The perception of tonal intervals in isolation and in melodic context. Psychomusicology: A Journal of Research in Music Cognition, 2(1), 21.
Waters, A. J., Underwood, G., & Findlay, J. M. (1997). Studying expertise in music reading: Use of a pattern-matching paradigm. Perception & psychophysics, 59(4), 477-488.
Waters, A. J., & Underwood, G. (1998). Eye movements in a simple music reading task: A study of expert and novice musicians. Psychology of Music, 26(1), 46-60.
White, B. W. (1960). Recognition of distorted melodies. The American journal of psychology, 73(1), 100-107.
White, J. D. (1984). The analysis of music. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.
Wiltshire, E. S. (2006). The Effect of Visual and Aural Congruence on the Sight-reading of Music Notation(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Wing, H. D.(1970). Tests of musical ability and appreciation. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Winter, R. (1992). Music for our time (Vol. 1). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Wolf, D. P., & Gardner, H. (1981). On the structure of early symbolization. In R. Schiefelbush & D. Bricker (Eds.), Early language intervention (pp.287-327). Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
Wolf, T. (1976). A cognitive model of musical sight-reading. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5(2), 143-171.