本研究旨在探討不同語言以及不同視覺輔助之注釋組合(combined annotations)輔助閱讀對字彙學習的影響，由於受試者必須在個人數位助理(Personal Digital Assistant)上進行文章的閱讀，故本研究有別於傳統藉由桌上型電腦(desktop)進行注釋輔助閱讀之研究。
參與本研究的學生來自中台灣某國立高中一年級，共有一百二十一位。這些受試學生依據不同的注釋組合分成四組，分別為中文圖片注釋組、中文動畫注釋組、英文圖片注釋組以及英文動畫注釋組。這些受試者在研究開始第一週先接受個人數位助理之操作訓練，第二週則實施前測以確定四組受試者對目標單字(target words)的認識無差異，均為陌生。第三週時受試者在PDA上進行四篇指定文章的閱讀，四篇文章均有五個目標單字，總共二十個目標單字且均為動詞，受試者依據自己的組別在不同的組合注釋輔助下閱讀文章，每閱讀完一篇文章及進行完文末的閱讀測驗活動後，立即在PDA上接受五個目標單字的立即後測(immediate posttest) ，四篇文章故總共進行了四次。立即後測包含兩種能力的測驗:一為受試者拼寫出目標單字(word production)；其二為受試者辨認出目標單字(word recognition)。在實驗結束一個月後，受試者接受與立即後測相同內容但以紙筆形式進行的延宕後測(delayed posttest)，以得知在實驗一個月後受試者目標單字的學習情形。
研究結果顯示，在立即後測中，無論在單字拼寫或單字辨認方面，中文及英文注釋對單字所產生之學習效益並無差異，但圖片與動畫輔助則對單字學習產生不同效益，且其中動畫輔助對單字學習所產生的效益顯著大於圖片輔助。而在延宕後測中，無論在單字拼寫或單字辨認方面，中文或英文注釋以及圖片或動畫對單字學習所產生之效益均無差異，但在單字拼寫方面，語言注釋(verbal annotations)與視覺輔助工具(visual aids)之間的交互作用達到顯著。
本研究證實藉由PDA做為閱讀媒介而呈現的以母語(Chinese)或以目標語(English)為注釋對單字的學習效益，與藉由桌上型電腦做為閱讀媒介而呈現的兩種語言對單字的學習效益，結果相當一致。此外，本研究亦證實動畫輔助有助於以動詞為目標字彙的單字學習，並提供了僅具基本語言能力的中學生作為佐證。最後，本文亦論及相關主題的未來研究以及教學建議。

The purpose of the study is to investigate the effects of different combined annotations with first and second languages for verbal annotations and pictures and animation for visual annotations. It was administered on PDAs to further confirm whether the results are in agreement with those implemented on the desktop. According to the assigned annotation type, four classes of 121 senior high school freshmen in central Taiwan read 4 passages, each of which had 5 target verbs, annotated in the following ways: L1 definition-plus-pictures, L1 definition-plus-animation, L2 definition-plus-pictures, and L2 definition-plus-animation. These participants took an immediate posttest on a PDA after reading each and a delayed parallel posttest with paper and pen one month after the experiment. Two-way ANOVA analyses indicated in the immediate posttests no significant differences between the definition languages but significant differences between the visual aids, with animatied pictures more effective, including word production part and word recognition part; however, in the delayed posttest no significant differences between the definition languages and between the visual aids, whether in word production part or in word recognition part. Besides, different from the results in the immediate posttest, there were significant interaction effects between different verbal annotations and different visual aids found in word production of the delayed posttests. The findings of definition languages were consistent with the previous studies, and this study further offered evidence from younger adults and lower proficient English learners. The performance for animated pictures over still pictures supported the argument that dynamic animation is designed to illustrate concepts of changes and processes such as English verbs. Directions for future research and suggestions for language practitioners are also discussed.

Abdous, M., Camarena, M. M. & Facer, B. R. (2009). MALL technology: Use of academic podcasting in the foreign language classroom. ReCALL, 21(1), 76-95.
AbuSeileek, A. F. (2011). Hypermedia annotation presentation: The effect of location and type on the EFL learners’ achievement in reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Computers and Education, 57, 1281-1291.
Acha, J. (2009). The effectiveness of multimedia programmes in children's vocabulary learning. British Journal of Education Technology, 40(1), 23-31.
Akbulut, Y. (2007). Effects of multimedia annotations on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of advanced learners of English as a foreign language. Instruction Science, 35, 499-517.
Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on l2 vocabulary acquisition: a comparative study. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), 202-232.
Baddeley, A. (1990). Human Memory, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Basoglu, E. B. & Akdemir, O. (2010). A comparison of undergraduate students’ English vocabulary learning: Using mobile phones and flash cards. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9 (3), 1-7.
Bell, F. L. & LeBlanc, L. B. (2000). The language of glosses in L2 reading on computer: Learners' preferences. Hispania, 83(2), 274-285.
Bowles, M. A. (2004). L2 glossing: To CALL or not to CALL. Hispania, 87(3), 541-552.
Browne, C. & Culligan, B. (2008). Combining technology and IRT testing to build student knowledge of high frequency vocabulary. The JALT CALL Journal, 4(2), 3-16.
Cavus, N. & Ibrahim, D. (2009). M-Learning: an experiment in using SMS to support learning new English language words. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 78-91.
Chan, T-W., Milrad, M., and 17 others. (2006). One-to-one technology-enhanced learning: an opportunity for global research collaboration. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning Journal, 1, 3-29
Chen, H. (2002). Investigating the effects of L1 and L2 glosses on foreign language reading comprehension and vocabulary retention. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Computer-Assisted Language Instruction Consortium, Davis, CA.
Chen, C. M. & Chung, C. J. (2008). Personalized mobile English vocabulary learning system based on item response theory and learning memory cycle. Computers & Education, 51, 624-645.
Chen, C. M. & Hsu, S. H. (2008). Personalized intelligent mobile learning system for supporting effective English learning. Educational Technology & Society, 11(3), 153-180.
Chen, C. M. & Li, Y. L. (2010). Personalized context-aware ubiquitous learning system for supporting effective English vocabulary learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(4), 341-364
Chen, N. S., Hsieh, S. W. & Kinshuk (2008). Effects of short-term memory and content representation type on mobile language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 12(3), 93-113.
Chun, D. M., & Plass, J. L. (1996). Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 80(2), 183-198.
Clough, G., Jones, A. C., McAndrew, P. & Scanlon, E. (2008). Informal learning with PDAs and smartphones. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 359–371.
Coady, J. (1993). Research on ESL/EFL vocabulary acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
Davis, J. N. (1989). Facilitating effects of marginal glosses on foreign language reading. The Modern Language Journal, 73 (1), 41-48.
Day, I. (1982). Curiosity and the interested explorer. Performance and Instruction, 21(4), 19-22.
Frenckner, K. (1990). Legibility of continuous text on computer screens—A guide to the literature. Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology.
Grace, C. (1998). Retention of word meanings inferred from context and sentence-level translations: Implications for the design of beginning-level software. The Modern Language Journal, 82 (4), 533-544.
Grace, C. (2000). Gender differences: Vocabulary retention and access to translations for beginning language learners in CALL. Modern Language Journal, 84(2), 214-224.
Holley, F. M. and King, J. K. (1971). Vocabulary glosses in foreign language reading materials. Language Learning, 21, 213-219.
Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In. P. J. L. Arnaud & H. Bejoint (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp.113-125). London: MacMillan.
Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80 (3), 327-339.
Huo, S. M. (2008). Applying Tablet PCs to English vocabulary teaching and learning in Taiwan junior high school. Unpublished Master Thesis, NTNU, Taiwan.
Jacobs, G. (1991). Second language reading recall as a function of vocabulary glossing and selected other variables. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.
Jacobs, G. (1994). What lurks in the margin: Use of vocabulary glosses as a strategy in second language learning. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 5 (1), 115-137.
Jacobs, G. M., Dufon, P., & Hong, C. F. (1994). L1 and L2 glosses in reading passages: Their effectiveness for increasing comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Research in Reading, 17, 19-28.
Jones, L. C., & Plass, J. L. (2002). Supporting listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition in French with multimedia annotations. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 546-561.
Kennedy, C. & Levy, M. (2008). Using SMS to support beginners’ language learning. ReCALL, 20 (3), 315-330.
Kiernan, P.J., & Aizawa, K. (2004). Cell phones in task based learning: Are cell phones useful language learning tools? ReCALL, 16(1), 71-84.
Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary: The tool of last resort in foreign language reading? A new perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 285-299.
Kost, C. R., Foss, P., & Lenzini, J. J. (1999). Textual and Pictorial Glosses: Effectiveness on Incidental Vocabulary Growth When Reading in a Foreign Language. Foreign Language Annals, 32(1), 89-113.
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33(2), 149-74.
Kroll, J. F., & Sunderman, G. (2003). Cognitive processes in second language learners and bilinguals: The development of lexical and conceptual representations. In C. J. Doughty, & M. H. Long (Eds.) The Handbook of SLA (pp. 104-29). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL, 21(2), 157-165.
Kukulska-Hulme, A., Sharples, M., Milrad, M., Arnedillo-Sa’ nchez, I. and Vavoula, G. (2009) Innovation in Mobile Learning: A European Perspective. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 1(1): 13–35.
Kuo, F. L., & Chiang, H. K. (2006). Story animation: Helping students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia learning. Proceedings of 2006 Interational Conference on English Instruction and Assessment. Retrieved from http://fllcccu.ccu.edu.tw/conference/2005 conference_2/download/C16.pdf
Levy, M. & Kennedy, C. (2005). Learning Italian via mobile SMS. In A. Kukulska-Hulme, & J. Traxler (Eds.), Mobile learning: A handbook for educators and trainers (pp.76-83). London: Taylor and Francis..
Levy, M. (2009). Technologies in use for second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 93, 769-782.
Li, M., Ogata, H., Hashimoto, S., & Yano, Y. (2009). Adaptive Kanji learning using mobile-based email. In Proceedings of the 17th international conference on computers in education. Hong Kong: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education.
Lin, C. C. (2009). Learning action verbs with animation. The JALT CALL Journl, 5(3), 23-40.
Lomicka, L. L. (1998). “To gloss or not to gloss”: An investigation of reading comprehension online. Language Learning & Technology, 1 (2), 41-50.
Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24, 515–525.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist, 19, 30-42.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. (2002a). Aids to computer-based multimedia learning, Learning and Instruction, 12, 107-119.
Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. (2002b). Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 87–99.
McCombs, L. (1972). The validation of a measure of state epistemic curiosity in a computer-assisted learning situation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.
Miyasako, N. (2002). Does text-glossing have any effects on incidental vocabulary learning through reading for Japanese senior high school students? Language Education & Technology, 39, 1-20.
Myong, H. K. (1995). Glossing in incidental and intentional learning of foreign language vocabulary and reading. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL, 13, 49-94.
Myong, H. K. (2005). Glosses, comprehension, and strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17(2), 125-143.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, I.S.P. (1983). Teaching and learning vocabulary. Wellington: English Language Institute, Victoria University. (Reprinted from ‘‘To gloss or not to gloss’’: An investigation of reading comprehension online (pp. 41), by Lomicka, L., Language Learning & Technology, 1(2).)
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. (Reprinted 1979, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate).
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representation: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Paivio, A. (1990). Mental representation: a dual-coding approach. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Pak, J. (1986). The effect of vocabulary glossing on ESL reading comprehension. Unpublished manuscript, University of Hawaii at Manoa. (Reprinted from ‘‘To gloss or not to gloss’’: An investigation of reading comprehension online (pp. 41), by Lomicka, L., Language Learning & Technology, 1(2).)
Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Leutner, D. (1998). Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 25-36.
Plass, J. L., Chun, D. M., Mayer, R., & Leutner, D. (2003). Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities. Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 221- 243.
Rott, S. (2005). Processing glosses: A qualitative exploration of how form-meaning connections are established and strengthened. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17, 95-124.
Rott, S., William, J., & Cameron, R. (2002) The effects of multiple-choice L1 glosses and input-output cycles on lexical acquisition and retention. Language Teaching Research, 6, 183-222.
Sandberg, J., Maris, M. & de Geus, K. (2011). Mobile English learning: An evidence-based study with fifth graders. Computers & Education, 57, 1334–1347.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.
Shahrokni, S. A. (2009). Second language incidental vocabulary learning: The effect of online textual, pictorial, and textual pictorial glosses. TESL-EJ, 13(3). Retrieved March 1, 2011, from http://www.tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume13/ej51/ej51a3
Sherwood, R. D., Kinzer, C. K., Hasselbring, T. S. & Bransford, J. D. (1987). Macro-contexts for learning; Initial Findings and issues. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 1(2), 93-108.
Song, Y. & Fox, R. (2008). Using PDA for undergraduate student incidental vocabulary testing. ReCALL, 20 (3), 290-314.
Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365~383.
Stockwell, G. (2008). Investigating learner preparedness for and usage patterns of mobile learning. ReCALL, 20(3), 253-270.
Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95-110.
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295–312.
Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. Camberwell, Australia: ACER Press.
Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning and Technology, 14(2), 50-73.
Thorton, P. & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21, 217-228.
Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002) Animation: can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57, 247–262. Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://www.idealibrary.com.
Wang, S. and Higgins, M. (2006) Limitations of mobile phone learning. The JALT CALL Journal,2(1): 3-14.
Watanabe, Y. (1992). Incidental learning of vocabulary: retention of inferred meanings vs. given meanings. Term paper prepared for ESL 650, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 287-307.
Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in language teaching. London: Edward Arnold, p. 111.
Wong, L. H. & Looi, C. K. (2010). Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: two case studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26, 421-433.
Wozniak, P. A. (1990). Optimization of learning. Masters Thesis, University of Poznan, Poland.
Wu, J., & Chu, H. (2007). The effects of multimedia annotations on the vocabulary retention of EFL readers. English Teaching and Learning, 31(2), 105-142.
Yanguas. I. (2009). Multimedia glosses and their effect on l2 text comprehension and vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 13(2), 48-67.
Yeh, Y., & Wang, C. (2003). Effects of multimedia vocabulary annotations and learning styles on vocabulary learning. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 131- 144.
Yoshii, M. (2006). L1 and l2 glosses: their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(3), 85-101.
Yoshii, M., & Flaitz, J. (2002). Second language incidental vocabulary retention: The effect of text and picture annotation types. CALICO Journal, 20(1), 33-58.
Yun, J. (2011). The effects of hypertext glosses on L2 vocabulary acquisition: a meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(1), 39-58.