肥胖(obesity)為一種熱量攝取不平衡所致的慢性代謝疾病，導致肥胖的原因有很多，像是基因、代謝、飲食、體能活動、社會文化環境等因素。肥胖對身體健康具有嚴重的危害，如增加心血管疾病、睡眠窒息症、糖尿病、癌症等發生的風險，因此開發安全且具協助體重控制效用之天然物質成為重要的議題。
牛樟芝( Antrodia cinnamomea)在傳統治療上常被用於治療食物及藥物中毒、腹瀉、腹痛、高血壓及肝癌，然而目前仍不清楚牛樟芝改善肥胖發生的潛力，因此本研究以皿培式牛樟芝為實驗材料，欲探討牛樟芝的抗肥胖(anti-adipogenic及anti-obesity)功效。
研究材料使用牛樟芝子實體粉末，經蒸餾水或酒精萃取，於成分分析中，牛樟芝乙醇萃物至少包含十種三萜類，包括antcin K、4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole、antcin C、zhankuic acid C,、dehydrosulphurenic acid、zhankuic acid A、zhankuic acid B、15-α-acetyl-dehydrosulphurenic acid、dehydroeburicoic acid及eburicoic acid。牛樟芝水萃物的部分，多醣萃物組成中主要以分子量小於14 kDa的醣類為主；單醣成分以galactose含量最多，其次為fucose。
細胞實驗中以3T3-L1分析不同分化期給予牛樟芝乙醇(ACE)或水萃物(ACW)下，對脂肪細胞脂質堆積的影響，結果發現乙醇和水萃物均有降低脂質堆積的效用。其中牛樟芝水萃暨其區分物(牛樟芝多醣類萃物(PS)及牛樟芝非多醣類萃物(NPS))具顯著anti-adipogenic 效用。於anti-adipogenic功效上，研究發現ACW及NPS可藉由抑制分化期初期mitotic clonal expansion，進而降低adipogenesis過程中脂肪細胞分化相關指標C/EBPβ、C/EBPα、PPARγ、FAS及aP2 mRNA表現¬；PS則可藉由降低DMI誘發分化初期ERK蛋白質磷酸化的表現，影響後續PPARγ及aP2 mRNA表現，最終降低脂肪細胞油滴的生成。
進而以動物實驗探討ACW抗肥胖效用，使用5週齡大C57BL/6J公鼠給予高脂飲食(HFD)誘發肥胖之實驗模式，評估同時投與高熱量飼料與牛樟芝水萃物飼養12週後對小鼠的影響。目前的實驗結果顯示給予HFD飲食顯著增加小鼠體重及出現體內代謝的異常，再給予ACW伴隨HFD飲食下，顯著降低小鼠血清中胰島素(insulin)、瘦體素(leptin)與HMOA-IR指數，並改善高脂飲食所致的肝損傷(降低AST指數及肝臟中TG和TC濃度)，也發現ACW的給予經由減緩高脂飲食所致的腹部體脂(腎週脂肪、腸系膜脂肪)堆積，顯著降低小鼠體重增加幅度。
總和以上結果，牛樟芝水萃暨其區分物在細胞實驗中具有anti-adipogenic效用，於動物實驗中也具有減緩高脂飲食誘發肥胖發生的潛力。我們的實驗結果顯示牛樟芝萃物在未來可應用於協助體重控制。

Obesity is a chronic metabolic disease resulting from an imbalance between energy intake and energy output. It is caused by the interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors. Health hazards associated with obesity are serious and include heart disease, sleep apnea, diabetes, and cancer. Thus, the development of agents that may offer safer and more effective alternatives for weight management is needed.
Antrodia cinnamomea, known as “niu-chang-chih”, has been traditionally used for the treatment of food and drug intoxication, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hypertension, and liver cancer. However, little is known about anti-obesity potential of A. cinnamomea. In this study, we evaluate the anti-adipogenic and anti-obesity activities of extracts of A. cinnamomea cultured on artificial agar plates.
The aqueous and ethanolic extracts were prepared form dried fruiting bodies of A. cinnamomea. There are 10 triterpenoids found in ethanolic extracts of A. cinnamomea, including antcin K, 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole, antcin C, zhankuic acid C, dehydrosulphurenic acid, zhankuic acid A, zhankuic acid B, 15-α-acetyl-dehydrosulphurenic acid, dehydroeburicoic acid, and eburicoic acid. The results showed that a low molecular weight polysaccharide (less than 14kDa) was predominantly present in the polysaccharide fractions of A. camphorata. In addition, galactose and fucose were major neutral sugars in polysaccharide fractions of A. cinnamomea.
We investigated effects of ethanolic (ACE) and aqueous extract (ACW) of A. cinnamomea on adipogenesis of murine 3T3-L1 cells at different differentiation stages. Our results showed that both extracts inhibited lipid deposits. ACW, polysaccharides (PS) and non-polysaccharides fractios (NPS) of ACW exhibited significant anti-adipogenic effect. The anti-adipogenic function of ACW is through inhibition of mitotic clonal expansion in the early phase of adipogenesis. During adipocyte differentiation period, ACW and NPS significantly decreased key adipocyte differentiation-associated markers, PPARγ, C/EBPβ, C/EBPα, FAS, and aP2 expression. PS suppressed DMI-induced ERK phosphoylation and mRNA expressions of PPARγ and aP2.
ACW was assayed for alleviative effects on obesity. An obesity animal model was established in 5-wk-old C57BL/6J male mice fed with high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks. The HFD mice exhibited significant body weight gain and impaired glucose metabolism. Mice with ACW co-administration (HFD+ACW group) showed significantly lower serum insulin, leptin and HOMA-IR value and ameliorated liver damage (AST values and hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride levels). HF+ACW group had significantly lower body weight gain due to decrease HFD-induced visceral fat accumulation (perirenal adipose tissue, and mesenteric adipose tissue).
In conclusion, A. cinnamomea aqueous extract and its fractions had anti-adipogenic effect in vitro. Furthermore, A. cinnamomea aqueous extract showed the anti-obesity potential in vivo. Our results suggested that A. cinnamomea extract may be applied to body weight control in future.

王升陽。(2011)。你所不知道的-牛樟芝(頁40~61)。新北市:蘋果屋，檸檬樹。
吳銘芳，黃幸妮，吳龍源，周建聖，葉明陽，呂旭峰。(2012)。以牛樟芝餵食小鼠亞急性與亞慢性毒性試驗。傳統醫學雜誌，23(1)，11-22。
洪綉茹。(2005)。3T3-L1脂肪細胞培養及分化平台建立及其應用於活性藻類的篩選。國立中央大學碩士論文。
胡恆龍，張慶。(1993)。肥胖與營養(頁108~110)。台北市:書泉。
陳筠婷。(2013)。牛樟芝菌絲體於三種固醇類squalene、cholesterol及stigmasterol處理下之成分與抗發炎研究。國立台灣大學碩士論文。
謝榮鴻，葉秋莉，陳妙齡，林翠品，劉承慈，邱晴薰，洪永瀚，邱雅鈴。(2013)。營養與免疫(頁11-19~11-20)。台中市:華格那。
Afridi, A. k., & Khan, A. (2004). Prevalence and Etiology of Obesity - An Overview. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 3(1), 14-25.
Ao, Z. H., Xu, Z. H., Lu, Z. M., Xu, H. Y., Zhang, X. M., & Dou, W. F. (2009). Niuchangchih (Antrodia camphorata) and its potential in treating liver diseases. J Ethnopharmacol, 121(2), 194-212. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.10.039
Aronne, L. J. (2002). Classification of obesity and assessment of obesity-related health risks. Obes Res, 10 Suppl 2, 105s-115s. doi: 10.1038/oby.2002.203
Camp, H. S., & Tafuri, S. R. (1997). Regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activity by mitogen-activated protein kinase. J Biol Chem, 272(16), 10811-10816.
Cederberg, A., & Enerback, S. (2003). Insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes--an adipocentric view. Curr Mol Med, 3(2), 107-125.
Chang, C. Y., Cheng, T. J., Chang, F. R., Wang, H. Y., Kan, W. C., Li, S. L.,et al. (2011). Macrophage mediated anti-proliferation effects of Anthodia camphorata non-polysaccharide based extracts on human hepatoma cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 75(4), 624-632.
Chang, C. Y., Huang, Z. N., Yu, H. H., Chang, L. H., Li, S. L., Chen, Y. P.,et al. (2008). The adjuvant effects of Antrodia Camphorata extracts combined with anti-tumor agents on multidrug resistant human hepatoma cells. J Ethnopharmacol, 118(3), 387-395. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2008.05.001
Chang, T. T., & Chou, W. N. (1995). Antrodia cinnamomea sp. nov. on Cinnamomum kanehirai in Taiwan. Mycological Research, 99(6), 756-758.
Chang, T. T., & Wang, W. R. (2005). Basidiomatal formation of Antrodia cinnamomea on artificial agar media. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 46(2), 151-154.
Chang, T. T., & Wang, W. R. (2008). The role of four essential oils on mycelial growth and basidiomatal formation of Antrodia cinnamomea. Taiwan Journal of Forest Science, 23, 105-110.
Chen, C. H., Yang, S. W., & Shen, Y. C. (1995a). New Steroid acids from Antrodia Cinnamome. J Nat Prod, 58(11), 1655-1661.
Chen, C. H., Yang, S. W., & Shen, Y. C. (1995b). New Steroid Acids from Antrodia cinnamomea, a Fungal Parasite of Cinnamomum micranthum. J. Nat. Prod., 58(11), 1655–1661.
Chen, J. J., Lin, W. J., Liao, C. H., & Shieh, P. C. (2007). Anti-inflammatory Benzenoids from Antrodia camphorata. J. Nat. Prod., 70, 989-992.
Chen, J., & Raymond, K. (2008). Beta-glucans in the treatment of diabetes and associated cardiovascular risks. Vascular Health and Risk Management, 4(6), 1265–1272.
Chen, S. C., Lu, M. K., Cheng, J. J., & Wang, D. L. (2005). Antiangiogenic activities of polysaccharides isolated from medicinal fungi. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 249(2), 247-254. doi: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.06.033
Chen, T. I., Chen, C. C., Lin, T. W., Tsai, Y. T., & Nam, M. K. (2011). A 90-day subchronic toxicological assessment of Antrodia cinnamomea in Sprague-Dawley rats. Food Chem Toxicol, 49(2), 429-433. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.018
Chen, Y. J., Cheng, P. C., Lin, C. N., Liao, H. F., Y.Y., C., Chen, C. C., & Lee, K. M. (2008). Polysaccharides from Antrodia camphorata mycelia extracts possess immunomodulatory activity and inhibits infection of Schistosoma mansoni. Int Immunopharmacol, 8(3), 458-467. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2007.11.008
Cherng, I. H., Chiang, H. C., Cheng, M. C., & Wang, Y. (1995). Three new triterpenoids from Antrodia cinnamomea. J Nat Prod, 58(3), 365-371.
Cherng, I. H., Wu, D. P., & Chiang, H. C. (1996). Triterpenoids from Antrodia cinnamomea. Phytochemistry, 41(1), 263–267.
Chitturi, S., Abeygunasekera, S., Farrell, G. C., Holmes-Walker, J., Hui, J. M., Fung, C.,et al. (2002). NASH and insulin resistance: Insulin hypersecretion and specific association with the insulin resistance syndrome. Hepatology, 35(2), 373-379. doi: 10.1053/jhep.2002.30692
Chou, M.-C., Chang, R., Hung, Y.-H., Chen, Y.-C., & Chiu, C.-H. (2013). Antrodia camphorata ameliorates high-fat-diet induced hepatic steatosis via improving lipid metabolism and antioxidative status. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(3), 1317-1325. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2013.04.019
Collins, S., Martin, T. L., Surwit, R. S., & Robidoux, J. (2004). Genetic vulnerability to diet-induced obesity in the C57BL/6J mouse: physiological and molecular characteristics. Physiol Behav, 81(2), 243-248. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.006
Dieudonne, M. N., Machinal-Quelin, F., Serazin-Leroy, V., Leneveu, M. C., Pecquery, R., & Giudicelli, Y. (2002). Leptin mediates a proliferative response in human MCF7 breast cancer cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 293(1), 622-628. doi: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)00205-x
Dreyer, C., Krey, G., Keller, H., Givel, F., Helftenbein, G., & Wahli, W. (1992). Control of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway by a novel family of nuclear hormone receptors. Cell, 68(5), 879-887.
Fantuzzi, G. (2005). Adipose tissue, adipokines, and inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 115(5), 911-919; quiz 920. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.023
Feng, D., Tang, Y., Kwon, H., Zong, H., Hawkins, M., Kitsis, R. N., & Pessin, J. E. (2011). High-fat diet-induced adipocyte cell death occurs through a cyclophilin D intrinsic signaling pathway independent of adipose tissue inflammation. Diabetes, 60(8), 2134-2143. doi: 10.2337/db10-1411
Font de Mora, J., Porras, A., Ahn, N., & Santos, E. (1997). Mitogen-activated protein kinase activation is not necessary for, but antagonizes, 3T3-L1 adipocytic differentiation. Mol Cell Biol, 17(10), 6068-6075.
Gajda, A. M., Pellizzon, M. A., Ricci, M. R., & Ulman, E. A. (2007). Diet-induced metabolic syndrome in rodent models. animalLABNEWS.
Geethangili, M., & Tzeng, Y. M. (2011). Review of Pharmacological Effects of Antrodia camphorata and Its Bioactive Compounds. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2011, 212641. doi: 10.1093/ecam/nep108
Gonzalez-Castejon, M., & Rodriguez-Casado, A. (2011). Dietary phytochemicals and their potential effects on obesity: a review. Pharmacol Res, 64(5), 438-455. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.07.004
Gonzalez-Periz, A., & Claria, J. (2010). Resolution of adipose tissue inflammation. ScientificWorldJournal, 10, 832-856. doi: 10.1100/tsw.2010.77
Gregoire, F. M., Smas, C. M., & Sul, H. S. (1998). Understanding adipocyte differentiation. Physiol Rev, 78(3), 783-809.
Gwon, S. Y., Ahn, J. Y., Jung, C. H., Moon, B. K., & Ha, T. Y. (2013). Shikonin suppresses ERK 1/2 phosphorylation during the early stages of adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. BMC Complement Altern Med, 13, 207. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-13-207
Gwon, S. Y., Ahn, J. Y., Jung, C. H., Moon, B. K., & Ha, T. Y. (2013). Shikonin suppresses ERK 1/2 phosphorylation during the early stages of adipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13, 207.
Henry, S. L., Bensley, J. G., Wood-Bradley, R. J., Cullen-McEwen, L. A., Bertram, J. F., & Armitage, J. A. (2012). White adipocytes: more than just fat depots. Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 44(3), 435-440. doi: 10.1016/j.biocel.2011.12.011
Hseu, Y. C., Wu, F. Y., Wu, J. J., Chen, J. Y., Chang, W. H., Lu, F. J., et al. (2005). Anti-inflammatory potential of Antrodia Camphorata through inhibition of iNOS, COX-2 and cytokines via the NF-kappaB pathway. Int Immunopharmacol, 5(13-14), 1914-1925. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.06.013
Hsiao, G., Shen, M. Y., Lin, K. H., Lan, M. H., Wu, L. Y., Chou, D. S., et al. (2003). Antioxidative and hepatoprotective effects of Antrodia camphorata extract. J Agric Food Chem, 51(11), 3302-3308. doi: 10.1021/jf021159t
Hu, E., Kim, J. B., Sarraf, P., & Spiegelman, B. M. (1996). Inhibition of adipogenesis through MAP kinase-mediated phosphorylation of PPARgamma. Science, 274(5295), 2100-2103.
Huang, C. C., Hsu, M. C., Huang, W. C., Yang, H. R., & Hou, C. C. (2012). Triterpenoid-Rich Extract from Antrodia camphorata Improves Physical Fatigue and Exercise Performance in Mice. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2012, 364741. doi: 10.1155/2012/364741
Inui, A. (2003). Obesity--a chronic health problem in cloned mice? Trends Pharmacol Sci, 24(2), 77-80. doi: 10.1016/s0165-6147(02)00051-2
Karpe, F., Dickmann, J. R., & Frayn, K. N. (2011). Fatty Acids, Obesity, and Insulin Resistance: Time for a Reevaluation. Diabetes, 60(10), 2441-2449. doi: 10.2337/db11-0425/-/DC1
Kersten, S. (2001). mechanism of nutritional and hormonal regylation. EMBO Rep., 2(4), 282-286.
Kwak, D. H., Lee, J. H., Kim, T., Ahn, H. S., Cho, W. K., Ha, H., et al. (2012). Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom inhibits adipocyte differentiation by regulation of ERK1/2 and Akt pathway. PLoS One, 7(11), e49530. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049530
Lai, M. N., Ko, H. J., & Ng, L. T. (2012). Hypolipidemic Effects of Antrodia Cinnamomea Extracts in High-Fat Diet-Fed Hamsters. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 36(2), 233-239. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2010.00530.x
Lee, I. H., Huang, R. L., Chen, C. T., Chen, H. C., Hsu, W. C., & Lu, M. K. (2002). Antrodia camphorata polysaccharides exhibit anti-hepatitis B virus effects. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 209(1), 63-67.
Lii, C. K., Huang, C. Y., Chen, H. W., Chow, M. Y., Lin, Y. R., Huang, C. S., & Tsai, C. W. (2012). Diallyl trisulfide suppresses the adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes through ERK activation. Food Chem Toxicol, 50(3-4), 478-484. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.11.020
Liu, D. Z., Liang, H. J., Chen, C. H., Su, C. H., Lee, T. H., Huang, C. T., et al. (2007). Comparative anti-inflammatory characterization of wild fruiting body, liquid-state fermentation, and solid-state culture of Taiwanofungus camphoratus in microglia and the mechanism of its action. J Ethnopharmacol, 113(1), 45-53. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.03.037
Liu, J. J., Huang, T. S., Hsu, M. L., Chen, C. C., Lin, W. S., Lu, F. J., & Chang, W. H. (2004). Antitumor effects of the partially purified polysaccharides from Antrodia camphorata and the mechanism of its action. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 201(2), 186-193. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2004.05.016
Lo, H. C., Tsai, F. A., Wasser, S. P., Yang, J. G., & Huang, B. M. (2006). Effects of ingested fruiting bodies, submerged culture biomass, and acidic polysaccharide glucuronoxylomannan of Tremella mesenterica Retz.:Fr. on glycemic responses in normal and diabetic rats. Life Sci, 78(17), 1957-1966. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.08.033
Lowe, C. E., O'Rahilly, S., & Rochford, J. J. (2011). Adipogenesis at a glance. J Cell Sci, 124(Pt 16), 2681-2686. doi: 10.1242/jcs.079699
Lu, M. K., Cheng, J. J., Lai, W. L., Lin, Y. J., & Huang, N. K. (2008). Fermented Antrodia cinnamomea extract protects rat PC12 cells from serum deprivation-induced apoptosis: the role of the MAPK family. J Agric Food Chem, 56(3), 865-874. doi: 10.1021/jf072828b
Mansen, A., Guardiola-Diaz, H., Rafter, J., Branting, C., & Gustafsson, J. A. (1996). Expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) in the mouse colonic mucosa. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 222(3), 844-851. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1996.0832
Mau, J. L., Huang, P. N., Huang, S. J., & Chen, C. C. (2004). Antioxidant properties of methanolic extracts from two kinds of Antrodia camphorata mycelia. Food Chemistry, 86(1), 25-31. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.08.025
McArdle, M. A., Finucane, O. M., Connaughton, R. M., McMorrow, A. M., & Roche, H. M. (2013). Mechanisms of obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance: insights into the emerging role of nutritional strategies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 4, 52. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00052
Michael, L. F., Lazar, M. A., & Mendelson, C. R. (1997). Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor g1. Endocrinology, 138, 3695-3703.
Mizuno, T. (1996). Development of antitumor polysaccharides from mushroom fungi. Foods Ingred. J. Jpn., 167, 69-85.
Moreno-Navarrete, J. M., & Fernández-Real, J. M. (2012). Adipocyte Differentiation. 17-38. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0965-6_2
Mueller, E., Sarraf, P., Tontonoz, P., Evans, R. M., Martin, K. J., Zhang, M., et al. (1998). Terminal differentiation of human breast cancer through PPAR gamma. Mol Cell, 1(3), 465-470.
Newell, F. S., Su, H., Tornqvist, H., Whitehead, J. P., Prins, J. B., & Hutley, L. J. (2006). Characterization of the transcriptional and functional effects of fibroblast growth factor-1 on human preadipocyte differentiation. FASEB J, 20(14), 2615-2617. doi: 10.1096/fj.05-5710fje
Nolan, E., O'Meara, Y. M., & Godson, C. (2013). Lipid mediators of inflammation in obesity-related glomerulopathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant, 28 Suppl 4, iv22-29. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gft392
Ntambi, J. M., & Kim, Y. C. (2000). Adipocyte Differentiation and Gene Expression. J. Nutr., 130, 3122S-3126S.
Ouchi, N., Parker, J. L., Lugus, J. J., & Walsh, K. (2011). Adipokines in inflammation and metabolic disease. Nat Rev Immunol, 11(2), 85-97. doi: 10.1038/nri2921
Park, T., & Kim, Y. (2011). Phytochemicals as potential agents for prevention and treatment of obesity and metabolic diseases. Anti-Obesity Drug Discovery and Development, 1(00), 00.
Park, U. H., Jeong, H. S., Jo, E. Y., Park, T., Yoon, S. K., Kim, E. J., et al. (2012). Piperine, a component of black pepper, inhibits adipogenesis by antagonizing PPARgamma activity in 3T3-L1 cells. J Agric Food Chem, 60(15), 3853-3860. doi: 10.1021/jf204514a
Patwardhan, B., Warude, D., Pushpangadan, P., & Bhatt, N. (2005). Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine: a comparative overview. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2(4), 465-473. doi: 10.1093/ecam/neh140
Prusty, D., Park, B. H., Davis, K. E., & Farmer, S. R. (2002). Activation of MEK/ERK signaling promotes adipogenesis by enhancing peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma ) and C/EBPalpha gene expression during the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. J Biol Chem, 277(48), 46226-46232. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M207776200
Rao, Y. K., Fang, S. H., & Tzeng, Y. M. (2007). Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferation tumoral cells activities of Antrodia camphorata, Cordyceps sinensis, and Cinnamomum osmophloeum bark extracts. J Ethnopharmacol, 114(1), 78-85. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.028
Ravussin, E., & Bouchard, C. (2000). Human genomics and obesity: finding appropriate drug targets. Eur J Pharmacol, 410(2-3), 131-145.
Rayalam, S., Della-Fera, M. A., & Baile, C. A. (2008). Phytochemicals and regulation of the adipocyte life cycle. J Nutr Biochem, 19(11), 717-726. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2007.12.007
Rosen, E. D., Walkey, C. J., Puigserver, P., & Spiegelman, B. M. (2000). Transcriptional regulation of adipogenesis. GENES & DEVELOPMENT, 14, 1293-1307. doi: 10.1101/gad.14.11.1293
Rossmeisl, M., Rim, J. S., Koza, R. A., & Kozak, L. P. (2003). Variation in type 2 diabetes--related traits in mouse strains susceptible to diet-induced obesity. Diabetes, 52(8), 1958-1966.
Sato, A., Kawano, H., Notsu, T., Ohta, M., Nakakuki, M., Mizuguchi, K., et al. (2010). Antiobesity effect of eicosapentaenoic acid in high-fat/high-sucrose diet-induced obesity: importance of hepatic lipogenesis. Diabetes, 59(10), 2495-2504. doi: 10.2337/db09-1554
Schadinger, S. E., Bucher, N. L., Schreiber, B. M., & Farmer, S. R. (2005). PPARgamma2 regulates lipogenesis and lipid accumulation in steatotic hepatocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 288(6), E1195-1205. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00513.2004
Seger, R., & Krebs, E. G. (1995). The MAPK signaling cascade. The FASEB Journal, 9(9), 726-735.
Shao, D., & Lazar, M. A. (1997). Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha, and cell cycle status regulate the commitment to adipocyte differentiation. J Biol Chem, 272(34), 21473-21478.
Shen, Y. C., Chou, C. J., Wang, Y. H., Chen, C. F., Chou, Y. C., & Lu, M. K. (2004). Anti-inflammatory activity of the extracts from mycelia of Antrodia camphorata cultured with water-soluble fractions from five different Cinnamomum species. FEMS Microbiol Lett, 231(1), 137-143. doi: 10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00953-4
Shimba, S., Wada, T., & Tezuka, M. (2001). Arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is involved in negative regulation of adipose differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells: AhR inhibits adipose differentiation independently of dioxin. J Cell Sci, 114(Pt 15), 2809-2817.
Shu, C. H., & Lung, M. Y. (2008). Effect of culture pH on the antioxidant properties of Antrodia camphorata in submerged culture. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Chemical Engineers, 39(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jcice.2007.04.010
Singla, P., Bardoloi, A., & Parkash, A. A. (2010). Metabolic effects of obesity: A review. World J Diabetes, 1(3), 76-88. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v1.i3.76
Smith, P. J., Wise, L. S., Berkowitz, R., Wan, C., & Rubin, C. S. (1988). Insulin-like growth factor-I is an essential regulator of the differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. J Biol Chem, 263(19), 9402-9408.
Song, T. Y., & Yen, G. C. (2002). Antioxidant properties of Antrodia camphorata in submerged culture. J Agric Food Chem, 50(11), 3322-3327.
Strissel, K. J., DeFuria, J., Shaul, M. E., Bennett, G., Greenberg, A. S., & Obin, M. S. (2010). T-cell recruitment and Th1 polarization in adipose tissue during diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6 mice. Obesity (Silver Spring), 18(10), 1918-1925. doi: 10.1038/oby.2010.1
Suganami, T., Tanimoto-Koyama, K., Nishida, J., Itoh, M., Yuan, X., Mizuarai, S., et al. (2007). Role of the Toll-like receptor 4/NF-kappaB pathway in saturated fatty acid-induced inflammatory changes in the interaction between adipocytes and macrophages. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 27(1), 84-91. doi: 10.1161/01.ATV.0000251608.09329.9a
Tang, Q. Q., Otto, T. C., & Lane, M. D. (2003a). CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta is required for mitotic clonal expansion during adipogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100(3), 850-855. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0337434100
Tang, Q. Q., Otto, T. C., & Lane, M. D. (2003b). Mitotic clonal expansion: a synchronous process required for adipogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100(1), 44-49. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0137044100
Tontonoz, P., Hu, E., Devine, J., Beale, E. G., & Spiegelman, B. M. (1995). PPAR gamma 2 regulates adipose expression of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene. Mol Cell Biol, 15(1), 351-357.
Tontonoz, P., Nagy, L., Alvarez, J. G., Thomazy, V. A., & Evans, R. M. (1998). PPARgamma promotes monocyte/macrophage differentiation and uptake of oxidized LDL. Cell, 93(2), 241-252.
Wang, C. Y., & Liao, J. K. (2012). A mouse model of diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance. Methods Mol Biol, 821, 421-433. doi: 10.1007/978-1-61779-430-8_27
Wang, J. H., Zha, X. Q., & Feng, B. J. (2010). Comparison of antitumor activities of different polysaccharide fractions from the stems of Dendrobium nobile Lindl. Carbohydrate Polymers, 79(1), 114-118.
Wasser, S. P. (2002). Medicinal mushrooms as a source of antitumor and immunomodulating polysaccharides. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 60(3), 258-274. doi: 10.1007/s00253-002-1076-7
Wen, C. P., David Cheng, T. Y., Tsai, S. P., Chan, H. T., Hsu, H. L., Hsu, C. C., & Eriksen, M. P. (2009). Are Asians at greater mortality risks for being overweight than Caucasians? Redefining obesity for Asians. Public Health Nutr, 12(4), 497-506. doi: 10.1017/S1368980008002802
Winzell, M. S., & Ahrén, B. (2004). The High-Fat Diet–Fed Mouse. Diabetes 53, Suppl. 3, S215–S219.
Wu, S. H., Ryvarden, L., & Chang, T. T. (1997). Antrodia camphorata ("niu-chang-chih"), new combination of a medicinal fungus in Taiwan. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 38(4), 273-275.
Xu, H., Barnes, G. T., Yang, Q., Tan, G., Yang, D., Chou, C. J., et al. (2003). Chronic inflammation in fat plays a crucial role in the development of obesity-related insulin resistance. J Clin Invest, 112(12), 1821-1830. doi: 10.1172/jci19451
Yang, R., & Barouch, L. A. (2007). Leptin signaling and obesity: cardiovascular consequences. Circ Res, 101(6), 545-559. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.156596
Yeh, C. T., Rao, Y. K., Yao, C. J., Yeh, C. F., Li, C. H., Chuang, S. E., et al. (2009). Cytotoxic triterpenes from Antrodia camphorata and their mode of action in HT-29 human colon cancer cells. Cancer Lett, 285(1), 73-79. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2009.05.002
Zhang, B., Berger, J., Zhou, G., Elbrecht, A., Biswas, S., White-Carrington, S., et al. (1996). Insulin- and mitogen-activated protein kinase-mediated phosphorylation and activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. J Biol Chem, 271(50), 31771-31774.
Zheng, J., Shen, N., Wang, S., & Zhao, G. (2013). Oat beta-glucan ameliorates insulin resistance in mice fed on high-fat and high-fructose diet. Food Nutr Res, 57. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v57i0.22754