簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

研究生: 孫世恆
Shih-Heng Sun
論文名稱: 本體覺輸入對於唐氏症兒童動作表現影響之研究
The Influence of Proprioceptive Input on Motor Performance for Children with Down Syndrome
指導教授: 吳武典
Wu, Wu-Tien
學位類別: 博士
Doctor
系所名稱: 特殊教育學系
Department of Special Education
論文出版年: 2006
畢業學年度: 94
語文別: 中文
論文頁數: 178
中文關鍵詞: 唐氏症兒童本體覺動作表現感覺功能
英文關鍵詞: Down syndrome children, proprioceptive input, motor performance, sensory function
論文種類: 學術論文
相關次數: 點閱:457下載:116
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報
  • 唐氏症兒童中有很高比例有動作發展遲緩的問題,過去的研究顯示本體覺輸入(proprioceptive input)對於動作的控制與學習非常重要,但是操作本體覺輸入對於唐氏症兒童動作控制的影響仍有待探究。本研究希望探討本體覺輸入對於唐氏症兒童動作表現的影響,並比較與一般兒童之間的差異。本研究參與者包括唐氏症組四至七歲兒童18名(15名男生,3名女生),年齡相當對照組兒童21人(14名男生,7名女生)。本研究係以分組因果比較研究設計,以重複量測的方式,讓所有參與者在三種本體覺情境下接受「布氏歐氏動作效能測試(簡版)」的評估,所有參與者也都接受「感覺史量表」的評估,以了解參與者感覺功能的狀況。研究結果顯示唐氏症兒童的動作表現顯著低於對照組兒童,依「布氏歐氏動作效能測試(簡版)」標準分數的評估結果,72.2%的唐氏症兒童屬於動作發展障礙。「感覺史量表」的評估結果顯示,唐氏症兒童在「感覺敏感」、「感覺登錄不良」、「分心」、「精細動作/視知覺」障礙與失調的比例顯著高於對照組,其中有「精細動作/視知覺」障礙的唐氏症兒童高達13人(72.2%)。相關分析也顯示這些感覺功能障礙與「跑步與敏捷性」、「平衡能力」、「兩側協調性」、「上肢協調性」、「視動控制能力」、「上肢速度與靈巧性」等向度的表現有顯著相關。對唐氏症組兒童來說,肢體附加重量會使動作表現下降,單側附加重量的情境下降的比例高於雙側附加重量的情境;對照組兒童在單側附加重量的情境下,動作表現則是有所增進。

    Children with Down syndrome face difficulties in motor development. How to help these children develop their motor skills becomes research focus in early intervention. The previous research results showed proprioceptive input was very important to motor control, but how proprioceptive input influences motor performance of children with Down syndrome remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of proprioceptive input on motor performance of children with Down syndrome. Repeated measure casual-comparative research design was employed in first stage of this research. One group of Down syndrome children age 4 to 7 (15 boys and 3 girls) and one group of typically developed children with chronological age matched (14 boys and 7 girls) participated in this study. Each participant received short form evaluation of Short form of Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency under three different proprioceptive input conditions to compare motor performance among three groups. Participants also received evaluation of Sensory Profile to reveal the relationship with motor performance. The results indicated motor performance of Down syndrome group was significantly lower than that of contorl group. Thirteen Down syndrome children (72.2%) were classified as disabled according to BOTMP-short evaluation result. The results of sensory profile revealed that Down syndrome children had sensory dysfunction in the domain of sensory sensitivity, poor registration, inattention and fine motor/visual percention domain. The sensory dysfunction was significant related to the performance in running speed and agility, balance, bilateral coordination, upper limb coordination, visual motor control, upper limb speed and dexterity of Down syndrome children. Unilateral increase weight over extremities input significantly decreased the motor performance of Down syndrome children but increased the motor performance of children in control group.

    目 錄 中文摘要 I 英文摘要 II 目錄 IV 表次 VII 圖次 XI 第一章 緒論 1 第一節 研究背景與動機 1 第二節 研究問題與目的 7 第三節 研究假設 8 第四節 名詞解釋 9 第五節 研究範圍 11 第二章 文獻探討 12 第一節 唐氏症兒童的動作發展 12 第二節 感覺輸入對於動作的影響 19 第三節 兒童動作表現的評估 26 第四節 兒童感覺功能的評估 34 第三章 研究方法 38 第一節 研究流程 38 第二節 研究設計 41 第三節 研究參與者 42 第四節 評估方法與工具 44 第五節 評估人員訓練、評估情境與信度考驗 63 第六節 資料蒐集、分析與統計方法 65 第四章 研究結果 69 第一節 唐氏症組兒童與對照組兒童動作表現之比較 69 第二節 兒童感覺功能與動作表現之關係 89 第三節 不同本體覺輸入對於兒童動作表現之影響 105 第五章 討論 127 第一節 唐氏症組兒童的動作表現 127 第二節 兒童感覺功能與動作表現的關係 133 第三節 改變本體覺輸入對於動作表現之影響 137 第四節 唐氏症兒童動作評估的調整 140 第五節 研究限制 145 第六章 結論與建議 148 第一節 結論 148 第二節 建議 149 參考文獻 151 附錄一、研究參與者同意書 166 附錄二、感覺史量表樣本 169 附錄三、感覺史量表報告書樣本 175 附錄四、變項名稱對照表 176 表次 表2-1、動作技巧發展評估工具一覽表 33 表3-1、研究參與者基本資料表 42 表4-1、「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」點數分數比較 70 表4-2、「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」標準九分數比較 71 表4-3、唐氏症組兒童原始成績與點數分數皮爾遜相關係數分析 73 表4-4、對照組兒童原始成績與點數分數皮爾遜相關係數分析 74 表4-5、「兩腳交替踏步手指同時畫圓」組別間表現比較 77 表4-6、「感覺史量表」各向度原始分數結果摘要 89 表4-7、「尋求感覺刺激(SP1G)」組別間分類等級比較表 91 表4-8、「情緒反應(SP2G)」組別間分類等級比較表 92 表4-9、「感覺敏感(SP3G)」組別間分類等級比較表 93 表4-10、「感覺登錄不良 (SP4G)」組別間分類等級比較表 94 表4-11、「分心(SP5G)」組別間分類等級比較表 95 表4-12、「精細動作/視知覺(SP6G)」組別間分類等級比較表 96 表4-13、「觸覺防禦(SP7G)」組別間分類等級比較表 98 表4-14、「口腔敏感(SP8G)」組別間分類等級比較表 99 表4-15、唐氏症組動作原始成績與感覺史量表原始成績皮爾遜相關係數分析 -----------------------------------------100 表4-16、對照組動作原始成績與感覺史量表原始成績皮爾遜相關係數分析 -----------------------------------------101 表4-17、不同測試情境下兩組「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」點數分數比較表 --------------------------------------------105 表4-18、「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」點數分數重複量測變異數分析摘要 ----------------------------------------------106 表4-19、「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」分類等級在不同測試情境比較 ----------------------------------------------107 表4-20、不同測試情境下「跑步速度及敏捷性」原始成績比較--108 表4-21、「跑步速度及敏捷性」原始成績重複量測變異數分析摘要---108 表4-22、不同測試情境下「跑步速度及敏捷性」點數分數比較-------109 表4-23、「跑步速度及敏捷性」點數分數重複量測變異數分析摘要----109 表4-24、不同測試情境下「慣用腳單腳站立在平衡木上」原始成績比較--110 表4-25、「慣用腳單腳站立在平衡木上」原始成績重複量測變異數分析摘要 ---------------------------------------------110 表4-26、不同測試情境下「慣用腳單腳站立在平衡木上」點數分數比較-111 表4-27、「慣用腳單腳站立在平衡木上」點數分數重複量測變異數分析摘要 ---------------------------------------------111 表4-28、不同測試情境下「以腳尖腳跟方式向前走在平衡木上」步數比較 ---------------------------------------------112 表4-29、不同測試情境下「兩腳交替踏步手指同時畫圓」原始成績比較--113 表4-30、不同測試情境下「雙腳跳起鼓掌」原始成績比較-----114 表4-31、不同測試情境下「雙腳跳遠」原始成績比較---------114 表4-32、「雙腳跳遠」原始成績重複量測變異數分析摘要------115 表4-33、不同測試情境下「雙腳跳遠」點數分數比較----------116 表4-34、「雙腳跳遠」點數分數重複量測變異數分析摘要------116 表4-35、不同測試情境下「雙手接球」原始成績比較----------118 表4-36、不同測試情境下「用慣用手丟球擊中目標」原始成績比較--119 表4-37、不同測試情境下「反應速度」原始成績比較----------120 表4-38、不同測試情境下「用慣用手畫直線通過平行的通道」點數分數比較 ----------------------------------------------120 表4-39、不同測試情境下「用慣用手畫直線通過平行的通道」錯誤量比較 -----------------------------------------------121 表4-40、不同測試情境下「用慣用手複製畫一個圓圈」成績比較--122 表4-41、不同測試情境下「用慣用手複製畫重疊的鉛筆」成績比較--122 表4-42、不同測試情境下「用慣用手將紙牌分類」點數分數比較----123 表4-43、「用慣用手將紙牌分類」點數分數重複量測變異數分析摘要-123 表4-44、不同測試情境下「用慣用手將紙牌分類」張數比較--------124 表4-45、「用慣用手將紙牌分類」張數重複量測變異數分析摘要-----124 表4-46、不同測試情境下「用慣用手在圈圈內畫點」點數分數比較---125 表4-47、不同測試情境下「用慣用手將紙牌分類」張數比較--------126 表4-48、「用慣用手將紙牌分類」張數重複量測變異數分析摘要-----126 表5-1、兩組「布氏歐氏動作效能量表(簡表)」在不同情境動作表現排序比較 -------------------------------------------------139 圖次 圖3-1、研究步驟圖 40 圖3-2、「跑步速度及敏捷性」測試場地示意圖 49 圖3-3、「用慣用手畫直線通過平行的通道」測試圖樣 54 圖3-4、「用慣用手仿畫一個圓圈」測試圖樣 55 圖3-5、「用慣用手仿畫一個圓圈」評分標準圖樣 56 圖3-6、「用慣用手仿畫重疊的鉛筆」測試圖樣 56 圖3-7、「用慣用手仿畫重疊的鉛筆」評分圖樣 57 圖3-8、「用慣用手將紙牌分類」紙牌樣式 58 圖3-9、「用慣用手在圏圈內畫點」圖樣 60 圖4-1、「跑步速度及敏捷性」原始成績比較圖 72 圖4-2、「慣用腳單腳站立在平衡木上」原始成績比較圖 75 圖4-3、「腳尖腳跟走平衡木」原始成績比較圖 76 圖4-4、「雙腳跳起鼓掌」次數比較圖 78 圖4-5、「雙腳跳遠」距離比較圖 79 圖4-6、「雙手接球」次數比較圖 81 圖4-7、「用慣用手丟球擊中目標」次數比較圖 82 圖4-8、「用慣用手畫直線通過平行的通道」錯誤次數比較圖 83 圖4-9、「用慣用手複製畫一個圓圈」得分比較圖 84 圖4-10、「用慣用手複製畫重疊的鉛筆」得分比較圖 86 圖4-11、「用慣用手將紙牌分類」張數比較圖 87 圖4-12、「用慣用手在圈圈內畫點」點數比較圖 88 圖4-13、「尋求感覺刺激」組別間分類等級比較圖 90 圖4-14、「情緒反應」組別間分類等級比較圖 91 圖4-15、「感覺敏感」組別間分類等級比較圖 92 圖4-16、「感覺登錄不良」組別間分類等級比較圖 93 圖4-17、「分心」組別間分類等級比較圖 94 圖4-18、「精細動作/視知覺」組別間分類等級比較圖 96 圖4-19、「觸覺防禦」組別間分類等級比較圖 97 圖4-20、「口腔敏感」組別間分類等級比較圖 98 圖4-21、點數分數總分「組別」與「測試情境」交互作用圖 106 圖4-22、「雙腳跳遠」距離「組別」與「測試情境」交互作用圖 115 圖4-23、「雙腳跳遠」點數分數「組別」與「測試情境」交互作用圖 117

    ㄧ、中文部份
    孫世恆、吳昇光 (民93):不同踝關節護具對正常年輕人平衡能力之影響。中台灣醫學科學雜誌,9(Supplement 1),1-8。
    孫世恆、林秀真、吳昇光、張玲瑛(民89):學齡前聽障兒童的靜態平衡能力-初步研究。物理治療,25,88-95。
    曾美惠(民87):感覺處理功能篩檢量表之發展。 台北:國科會。
    二、英文部分
    Anderson, D. F., Gebhart, J. A., Pease, D. G., & Ludwig, D. A. (1982). Effects of age and temporal placement of a modeled skill on children's performance on a balance task. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 55 (3 Pt 2), 1263-1266.
    Arendt, R. E., Maclean, W. E., Halpern, L. F., Youngquist, G. A., & Baumeister, A. A. (1991). The influence of rotary vestibular stimulation upon motor development of nonhandicapped and Down syndrome infants. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 12(3), 333-348.
    Beadle-Brown, J., Murphy, G., Wing, L., Gould, J., Shah, A., & Holmes, N. (2000). Changes in skills for people with intellectual disability: A follow-up of the camberwell cohort. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 44(Pt 1), 12-24.
    Beam, C. (2004). Balancing act. Parenting, 18(6), 154.
    Beckung, E., & Uvebrant, P. (1993). Motor and sensory impairments in children with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia, 34(5), 924-929.
    Bonifacci, P. (2004). Children with low motor ability have lower visual-motor integration ability but unaffected perceptual skills. Human Movement Science, 23, 157-168.
    Boswell, B. (1993). Effects of movement sequences and creative dance on balance of children with mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 77 (3 Pt 2), 1290.
    Boswell, B. (1991). Comparison of two methods of improving dynamic balance of mentally retarded children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 73 (3 Pt 1), 759-764.
    Bouet, V., & Gahery, Y. (2000). Muscular exercise improves knee position sense in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 289, 143-146.
    Broadhead, G. D., & Church, G. E. (1982). Discriminant analysis of gross and fine motor proficiency data. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55(2), 547-552.
    Bruininks, R. H. (1978). Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency (1st ed.). US: American Guidance Service, Inc.
    Burns, Y., O'Callaghan, M., McDonell, B., & Rogers, Y. (2004). Movement and motor development in ELBW infants at 1 year is related to cognitive and motor abilities at 4 years. Early Human Development, 80, 19-29.
    Butterfield, S. A., & Loovis, E. M. (1994). Influence of age, sex, balance, and sport participation on development of kicking by children in grades K-8. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 79(1 Pt 2), 691-697.
    Butterfield, S. A., & Loovis, E. M. (1993). Influence of age, sex, balance, and sport participation on development of throwing by children in grades K-8. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 76(2), 459-464.
    Butterworth, G., & Cicchetti, D. (1978). Visual calibration of posture in normal and motor retarded Down's syndrome infants. Perception, 7(5), 513-525.
    Chen, Y. J., & Fang, P. C. (2005). Sensory evoked potentials in infants with down syndrome. Acta Paediatrica, 94(11), 1615-1618.
    Cole, J. (2004). On the relation between sensory input and action. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36(3), 243-244.
    Connolly, B. H., & Michael, B. T. (1986). Performance of retarded children, with and without Down syndrome, on the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency. Physical Therapy, 66(3), 344-348.
    Connolly, B. H., Morgan, S. B., Russell, F. F., & Fulliton, W. L. (1993). A longitudinal study of children with Down syndrome who experienced early intervention programming. Physical Therapy, 73(3), 170-179.
    Cremers, M. J. G., Bol, E., de Roos, F., & van Gijn, J. (1993). Risk of sports activities in children with Down's syndrome and atlantoaxial instability. The Lancet, 342, 511-514.
    DePaepe, J. L., & Ciccaglione, S. (1993). A dynamic balance measure for persons with severe and profound mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 76(2), 619-627.
    Di Fabio, R. P., & Foudriat, B. A. (1996). Responsiveness and reliability of a pediatric strategy score for balance. Physiotherapy Research International, 1(3), 180-194.
    Distefano, E. A., & Brunt, D. (1982). Mentally retarded and normal children's performance on gross motor reaction and movement time tasks with varying degrees of uncertainty of movement. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 55(3), 1235-1238.
    Dover, G., & Powers, M. E. (2003). Reliability of joint position sense and force-reproduction measures during internal and external rotation of the shoulder. Journal of Athletic Training, 38(4), 304-310.
    Dunn, J. M. (1978). Reliability of selected psychomotor measures with mentally retarded adult males. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 46(1), 295-301.
    Dunn, W., & Brown, C. (1997). Factor analysis on the sensory profile from a national sample of children without disabilities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 51(7), 490-495.
    Dunn, W., & Westman, K. (1997). The sensory profile: The performance of a national sample of children without disabilities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 51(1), 25-34.
    Ebied, A. M., Kemp, G. J., & Frostick, S. P. (2004). The role of cutaneous sensation in the motor function of the hand. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 22(4), 862-866.
    El-Kahky, A. M., Kingma, H., Dolmans, M., & De Jong, I. (2000). Balance control near the limit of stability in various sensory conditions in healthy subjects and patients suffering from vertigo or balance disorders: Impact of sensory input on balance control. Acta Otolaryngol, 120, 508-516.
    Ermer, J., & Dunn, W. (1998). The sensory profile: A discriminant analysis of children with and without disabilities. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 52(4), 283-290.
    Faison-Hodge, J., & Porretta, D. L. (2004). Physical activity levels of students with mental retardation and students without disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21(2), 139-152.
    Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (2000). Peabody developmental motor scales (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED Inc.
    Forseth, A. K., & Sigmundsson, H. (2003). Static balance in children with hand-eye co-ordination problems. Child: Care, Health & Development, 29(6), 569-579.
    Foudriat, B. A., Di Fabio, R. P., & Anderson, J. H. (1993). Sensory organization of balance responses in children 3-6 years of age: A normative study with diagnostic implications. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 27(3), 255-271.
    Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2002). Understanding motor development (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
    Geddes, D. (1978). Motor development profiles of preschool deaf and hard-of-hearing children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 46(1), 291-294.
    Goodway, J. D., & Branta, C. F. (2003). Influence of a motor skill intervention on fundamental motor skill development of disadvantaged preschool children. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 74(1), 36-46.
    Goodway, J. D., Crowe, H., & Ward, P. (2003). Effects of motor skill instruction of fundamental motor skill development. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 20(3), 298-314.
    Goodway, J. D., & Rudisill, M. E. (1997). Perceived physical competence and actual motor skill competence of African American preschool children. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14(4), 314-326.
    Goshi, F., Demura, S., Kasuga, K., Sato, S., & Minami, M. (1999). Selection of effective tests of motor ability in preschool children based on pass-or-fail criteria: Examination of reliability, objectivity, and rate of passing. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 88(1), 169-181.
    Grob, K. R., Kuster, M. S., Higgins, S. A., Lloyd, D. G., & Yata, H. (2002). Lack of correlation between different measurements of proprioception in the knee. Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery.British Volume, 84(4), 614.
    Hammill, D. D., Pearson, N. A., & Voress, J. K. (1993). Developmental test of visual perception (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
    Harrison, J., & Hare, D. J. (2004). Brief report: Assessment of sensory abnormalities in people with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(6), 727-730.
    Hatzitaki, V., Zisi, V., Kollias, I., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2002). Perceptual-motor contributions to static and dynamic balance control in children. Journal of Motor Behavior, 34(2), 161.
    Henderson, S. E., & Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children (1st ed.). London, England: The Psychological Corporation Ltd.
    Hennequin, M., Morin, C., & Feine, J. S. (2000). Pain expression and stimulus localisation in individuals with Down's syndrome. The Lancet, 356, 1882-1887.
    Higgins, C. I., Campos, J. J., & Kermoian, R. (1996). Effect of self-produced locomotion on infant postural compensation to optic flow. Developmental Psychology, 32(5), 836-841.
    Hines, S., & Bennett, F. (1996). Effectiveness of early intervention for children with Down syndrome. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 2, 96-101.
    Inamura, K. N. (1998). SI for early intervention a team approach. San Antonio, TX: Therapy Skill Builders.
    Karnath, H. O., Reich, E., Rorden, C., Fetter, M., & Driver, J. (2002). The perception of body orientation after neck-proprioceptive stimulation effect of time and visual cueing. Experimental Brain Research, 143, 350-358.
    Knight, D., & Rizzuto, T. (1993). Relations for children in grades 2, 3, and 4 between balance skills and academic achievement. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 76(3 Pt 2), 1296-1298.
    Kodman, F. J. (1981). Perceptual-motor learning with moderately retarded persons. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 53(1), 25-26.
    Kokubun, M. (1999a). Are children with Down syndrome less careful in performing a tray-carrying task than children with other types of mental retardation? Perceptual & Motor Skills, 88, 1173-1176.
    Kokubun, M. (1999b). The relationship between the effect of setting a goal on standing broad jump performance and behaviour regulation ability in children with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 43(Pt 1), 13-18.
    Kokubun, M., Shinmyo, T., Ogita, M., Morita, K., Furuta, M., & Haishi, K. (1997). Comparison of postural control of children with Down syndrome and those with other forms of mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 84(2), 499-504.
    Kozub, F. M., Porretta, D. L., & Hodge, S. R. (2000). Motor task persistence of children with and without mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 38(1), 42-49.
    Krus, P. H., Bruininks, R. H., & Robertson, G. (1981). Structure of motor abilities in children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 52(1), 119-129.
    Kumai, M. (1999). Relation between self-paced and synchronized movement in persons with mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 89(2), 395-402.
    Largo, R. H., Caflisch, J. A., Hug, F., Muggli, K., Molnar, A. A., & Molinari, L. (2001). Neuromotor development from 5 to 18 years. part 2: Associated movements. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 43(7), 444-453.
    Largo, R. H., Caflisch, J. A., Hug, F., Muggli, K., Molnar, A. A., & Molinari, L. et al. (2001). Neuromotor development from 5 to 18 years. part 1: Timed performance. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 43(7), 436-443.
    Liao, H. F., Lee, S. C., Lien, I. N., Chen, C. J., Soong, W. T., & Tseng, C. C. (1992). Locomotor strategies before independent walking: Prospective study of 50 mentally retarded children. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 91(3), 334-341.
    LoMonaco, E. A., Paquet, N., & Hui-Chan, C. W. Y. (2004). Responses to whole head-and-body tilts with and without passive ankle dorsiflexion in the absence of visual feedback. Clinical Biomechanics, 19, 648-652.
    Loovis, E. M., & Butterfield, S. A. (2000). Influence of age, sex, and balance on mature skipping by children in grades K-8. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 90(3 Pt 1), 974-978.
    MacKay, D. N., & Bankhead, I. (1983). Reaction times of Down's syndrome and other mentally retarded individuals. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 56(1), 266.
    Mazzone, L., Mugno, D., & Mazzone, D. (2004). The general movements in children with Down syndrome. Early Human Development, 79, 119-130.
    McEwan, M. H., Dihoff, R. E., & Brosvic, G. M. (1991). Early infant crawling experience is reflected in later motor skill development. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 72(1), 75-79.
    McEwen, I. R. (2000). Children with cognitive impairments. In S. K. Campbell, D. W. V. Linden & R. J. Palisano (Eds.), Physical therapy for children (2nd ed.) (pp. 502-532). Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company.
    Mohan, A., Singh, A. P., & Mandal, M. K. (2001). Transfer and interference of motor skills in people with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 45(4), 361-369.
    Neeman, R. L., Sawicki, J. S., & Neeman, M. (1989). Factor structure of perceptual-motor attributes in normal children: A cross-validation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 68(1), 291-298.
    Nixon, P. D., & Passingham, R. E. (2001). Predicting sensory events. The role of the cerebellum in motor learning. Experimental Brain Research, 138, 251-257.
    Okuzumi, H., Tanaka, A., & Haishi, K. (1997). Relationship between age and head movement during stepping in place by nonhandicapped children and persons with mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 85(1), 375-381.
    Orlin, M. N., Effgen, S. K., & Handler, S. D. (1997). Effect of otitis media with effusion on gross motor ability in preschool-aged children: Preliminary findings. Pediatrics, 99(3), 334-337.
    Ottenbacher, K. (1982). Sensory integration therapy: Affect or effect. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 36(9), 571-578.
    Pitetti, K. H., & Fernhall, B. (2004). Comparing run performance of adolescents with mental retardation, with and without Down syndrome. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21(3), 219-228.
    Rider, R. A., & Abdulahad, D. T. (1991). Effects of massed versus distributed practice on gross and fine motor proficiency of educable mentally handicapped adolescents. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 73(1), 219-224.
    Riemann, B. L., & Lephart, S. M. (2002a). The sensorimotor system, part I: The physiologic basis of functional joint stability. Journal of Athletic Training, 37(1), 71-79.
    Riemann, B. L., & Lephart, S. M. (2002b). The sensorimotor system, part II: The role of proprioception in motor control and functional joint stability. Journal of Athletic Training, 37(1), 80-84.
    Rieser, J. J., Guth, D. A., & Weatherford, D. L. (1987). Mentally retarded and nonretarded adults' sensitivity to spatial structure. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 91(4), 379-391.
    Rieser, J. J., & Rider, E. A. (1991). Young children's spatial orientation with respect to mulitple targets when walking without vision. Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 97-107.
    Roberts, A. B., Mon-Williams, M., Tresilian, J. R., & Burgess-Limerick, R. (2000). Kinaesthetic judgements and refinement of striking action. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42(8), 518-524.
    Russell, D., Palisano, R., Walter, S., Rosenbaum, P., Gemus, M., & Gowland, C. et al. (1998). Evaluating motor function in children with Down syndrome: Validity of the GMFM. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 40, 693-701.
    Saunders, M. D., Timler, G. R., Cullinan, T. B., Pilkey, S., Questad, K. A., & Saunders, R. R. (2003). Evidence of contingency awareness in people with profound multiple impairments: Response duration versus response rate indicators. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 24(4), 231-245.
    Schmidt, R. A. (2003). Motor schema theory after 27 years: Reflections and implications for a new theory. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 74(4), 366-375.
    Smyth, M. M., Katamba, J., & Peacock, K. A. (2004). Development of prehension between 5 and 10 years of age: Distance scaling, grip aperture, and sight of the hand. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36(1), 91-103.
    Suomi, R., & Koceja, D. M. (1994). Postural sway patterns of normal men and women and men with mental retardation during a two-legged stance test. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 75(2), 205-209.
    Suomi, R., Surburg, P. R., & Koceja, D. M. (1992). Postural sway characteristics of single leg stance in men with mental retardation. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 75(2), 456.
    Turk, J., & Patton, M. (2000). Sensory impairment and head circumference in fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome and idiopathic intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 25(1), 59-68.
    Ulrich, D. A. (2000). Test of gross motor development (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED Inc.
    Ulrich, B. D., Ulrich, D. A., Angulo-Kinzler, R., & Chapman, D. D. (1997). Sensitivity of infants with and without Down syndrome to intrinsic dynamics. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(1), 10-19.
    Virji-Babul, N., & Brown, M. (2004). Stepping over obstacles: Anticipatory modifications in children with and without Down syndrome. Experimental Brain Research, 159(4), 487-490.
    Von Hofsten, C. (2004). An action perspective on motor development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(6), 266-272.
    Wang, W. Y., & Chang, J. J. (1997). Effects of jumping skill training on walking balance for children with mental retardation and Down's syndrome. Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences, 13(8), 487-495.
    Welsh, T. N., & Klavora, P. (2003). Response to visual stimuli by adults with developmental disabilities. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 96(3 Pt 1), 867-874.
    Williams, A. M., Weigelt, C., Harris, M., & Scott, M. A. (2002). Age-related differences in vision and proprioception in a lower limb interceptive task: The effects of skill level and practice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73(4), 386.
    Yun, J., & Shapiro, D. R. (2004). A quantitative approach to movement skill assessment for children with mental retardation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21(3), 269-280.
    Yun, J., & Ulrich, D. A. (1997). Perceived and actual physical competence in children with mild mental retardation. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14(4), 285-297.

    QR CODE