研究生: |
張芳琪 Fang-chi Chang |
---|---|
論文名稱: |
臺灣專科生的英語語音處 理 能力 之研究 A Study of Taiwanese Junior College Freshmen's Phonolgogical Porcessing in English |
指導教授: |
謝國平
Tse, Kwock-Ping |
學位類別: |
博士 Doctor |
系所名稱: |
英語學系 Department of English |
論文出版年: | 2000 |
畢業學年度: | 88 |
語文別: | 英文 |
論文頁數: | 166 |
中文關鍵詞: | 語音覺識 、語音處理 、解碼 、閱讀 |
英文關鍵詞: | phonemic awareness, phonological processing, recoding, reading |
論文種類: | 學術論文 |
相關次數: | 點閱:140 下載:9 |
分享至: |
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報 |
臺灣專科生的英語語音處理能力之研究
學者們在研究以英語為母語的人士的閱讀行為時,發現一個人的語音處理能力對其初期閱讀行為有極顯著的影響。進而,更多的研究證實不論一個人閱讀的是像中文這樣的方塊字或是像英文那樣的拼音文字,該語言的語音在個人的閱讀行為中都扮演著極重要的角色。借用此一研究發現,我們似乎可以說一個語言學習者,不論他原來的母語背景是什麼,也不論他學習的目標語是什麼,他應該都要習得該語言的語音以助益他對該語言的閱讀理解。
英文是一個採用拼音系統的語言,學者因而證實英語人士對英語語音的處理能力加上他對英文字和音之間的對應關係的認知是影響他閱讀能力的重要關鍵之一。如此一來,我們似乎可以進一步地說,任何學習英語的人,除了應當習得該語言的語音之外,也應當發展出以英語為母語的人士所具備的語音處理能力和對英語字和音的對應的認知。簡單地說,也就是臺灣人中學習英語文的人應當是要發展出此些能力和認知才是。
既然英語文是我們學校課程中的必修科目,到底我們的學生是否擁有此些能力和認知呢?本研究即針對此一議題進行探索。本研究參照文獻中所提供的英語語音處理活動,設計了六個適合臺灣五專一年級新生的程度的英語語音處理活動。旨在測量他們接受國中三年的正規英語文教育之後,所發展出的英語語音處理能力和對英文字和音的對應的認知。
受測者在這六個活動中的表現是否彼此之間有相關,是否可以用受測者在某個活動中的表現來預測他在其他活動中的表現,正如文獻所言,這些都在本研究的探討範圍內。
本研究所參考的相關活動大多是用來測試英語母語人士中的學齡前孩童和一、二年級的學童的。本研究中所用的受測者是15, 16歲的青少年,英語是他們所學的一個外國語。然而,本研究的發現卻與前述所提的研究發現有很多相似之點。本研究的發現提供了我們一些值得深入探討的方向,也給了我們一些教學上的建議。
關鍵詞:語音處理、閱讀
ABSTRACT
Researchers have proposed a universal function of phonological processing in reading tasks regardless of the writing systems of languages. That is, when learning languages, learners should acquire abilities to process phonological information of spoken and written languages of the target languages regardless of their orthographic representations. Their proposal reveals the importance of EFL learners' abilities to phonologically process English spoken and written languages. The current study was thus conducted to investigate Taiwanese EFL learners' abilities to phonologically process English spoken and written languages.
Six tasks on phonologically processing English spoken and written stimuli were given to 97 five-year junior college freshmen to examine their phonological processing abilities. The results of the study provide information about the subjects' abilities to phonologically process English spoken and written stimuli, the correlations between the various tasks, and the predictive validity of the phonological processing tasks for the subjects' performances of recoding and spelling. The findings of the study of EFL teenage learners are similar to the previous findings of studies of native English speaking children, regarding these three issues.
The findings also provide some information about the influence that the subjects' language background has on their processing English stimuli. Some implications for English teaching/learning deriving from the findings are presented. Since what have been explored in the current study are in relation to the notion of phonics, a brief review on phonics is presented, too.
Key words: phonemic awareness, phonologicl processing, recoding, reading
REFERENCES
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Adams, M. J. (1991). A talk with Marilyn Adams. Language Arts, 68(March), 206-
212.
Allegria, J., Pignot, E., & Morais, J. (1982). Phonetic analysis of speech and memory
codes in beginning readers. Memory and Cognition, 10, 451-456.
Baddeley, A. D. (1966). Short term memory for word sequences as a function of
acoustic, semantic and formal similarity. Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 18, 362-365.
Baddeley, A. (1987). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Ball . E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme segmentation training in
kindergarten make a difference in Early word recognition and developmental
spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 36(1), 49-66.
Baron, J. (1979). Orthographic and word specific mechanisms in children's reading of
words. Child Development, 50, 587-594.
Barran, R. W. (1978). Access to the meaning of printed words: Some implications for
reading and learning to read. In F. B. Murray (Ed.), The recognition of words:
IRA series on the development of the reading process. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Barron, R. W. (1981). Development of visual word recognition: A review. In G. E.
Mackinnon & T. G. Waller (Eds.), Reading research: Advances in theory and
practice (Vol. 3, pp. 119-158). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Barron, R. W. (1986). Word recognition in early reading: A review of the direct and
indirect access hypotheses. Cognition, 24, 93-119.
Bishop, C. H. (1964). Transfer effects of word and letter training in reading. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 3, 215-221.
Bowers, P. G., Steffy, R., & Tate, E. (1988). Comparison of the effects of IQ control
methods on memory and naming speed predictors of reading disability. Reading
Research Quarterly, 23(3), 305-319.
Bowey, J. A., & Francis, J. (1991). Phonological analysis as a function of age and
exposure to reading instruction. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 91-121.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A
causal connection. Nature, 310, 419-421.
Brooks, L. R. (1977). Visual pattern in fluent word identification. In A. S. Reber, &
D. L. Scarborough (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading: The proceedings of
the CUNY conference (pp.143-181). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd. Ed.). NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Brown, G. D. A., & Ellis, N. C. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of spelling. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Bruce, D. (1964). An analysis of word sounds by young children. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 34, 158-170.
Bruck, M. (1990). Phonological awareness and spelling in normal children and
dyslexics: The case of initial consonant clusters. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 50, 156-178.
Bruck, M., & Treiman, R. (1992). Learning to pronounce words: The limitations of
analogies. Reading Research Quarterly, 27(4), 375-387.
Bruck, M., & Waters, G. (1988). An analysis of the spelling errors of children who
differ in their reading and spelling skills. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9, 77-92.
Bryant, P., & Bradley, L. (1980). Children write words they do not read. In U. Frith
(Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling. London: Academic Press.
Burrough, G. E. R. (1957). A study of the vocabulary of young children. Oliver and
Boyd.
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1993). Evaluation of a program to teach
phonemic awareness to young children: A 1-year follow-up. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 85, 104-111.
Carroll, D. W. (1994). Psychology of language (2nd Ed.). CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company.
Castle, J. M., Riach, J., & Nicholson, T. (1994). Getting off to a better start in reading
and spelling: The effects of phonemic awareness instruction within a whole
language program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(3), 350-359.
Chaney, C. (1998). Preschool language and metalinguistic skills are links to reading
success. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 433-446.
Chikamatsu, N. (1996). The effects of L1 orthography on L2 word recognition.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 403-432.
Chomsky, N., & Halle, M. (1968). The sound pattern of English. Cambridge, MA.:
The MIT Press.
Coltheart, M., Davelaar, E., Jonasson, J. T., & Besner, D. (1977). Access to the
internal lexicon. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coltheart., V., Laxon, V., Richard, M., & Elton, C. (1988). Phonological in reading for
meaning by adults and children. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 14(3),
387-397.
Cronin, V., & Carver, P. (1998). Phonological sensitivity, rapid naming, and beginning
reading. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 447-467.
Daneman, M., & Stainton, M. (1991). Phonological recoding in silent reading. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 17(4), 618-632.
Dechant, E. (1993). Whole-language reading. PA: TECHNOMIC Publishing Co., Inc.
Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language two. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ehri, L. C., & Wilce, L. S. (1983). Development of word identification speed in
skilled and less skilled beginning readers. Journal of Educational Psychology,
75, 3-18.
Ehri, L. C., & Wilce, L. S. (1987). Does learning to spell help beginners learn to read
words? Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 47-65.
Ehri, L. C. (1992) Reconceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its
relationship to recoding. In P. B.Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.),
Reading acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Eriksen, C. W., Pollack, M. D., & Montague, W. E. (1970). Implicit speech:
Mechanisms in perceptual coding? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 19, 450-466.
Ervin-Tripp, S. (1973). Some strategies for the first two years. In A. Dil (Ed.),
Language acquisition and communicative choice. Standford, CL.: Standford
University Press.
Flesch, R. (1955). Why Johnny can't read. New York: Harper & Row.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Novy, D. M., & Liberman, D. (1991). How letter-
sound instruction mediates progress in first-grade reading and spelling. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 456-469.
Fox, B., & Routh, D. K. (1975). Analyzing spoken language into words, syllables,
and phonemes: A developmental study. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,
4(4), 331-342.
Freebody, P, & Byrne, B. (1988). Word-reading strategies in elementary school
children: Relations to comprehension, reading time, and phonemic awareness,
Reading Research Quarterly, 23(4), 441-453.
Frith, U. (1979). Reading by eye and writing by ear. In P. A. Kolers, M. Wrolstad, &
H. Bouma (Eds.), Processing of visible language (Vol. I, pp.379-390). New York:
Plenum Press.
Frith, U. (1980). Unexpected spelling problems. In U. Frith (Ed.), Cognitive processes
in spelling. London: Academic Press.
Gleitman, L. R., & Rozin, P. (1977). The structure and acquisition of reading I:
Relations between orthographies and the structure of languages. In A. S. Reber,
& D. L. Scarborough (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Goldstein, D. M. (1976). Cognitive-linguistic functioning and learning to read in
preschoolers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 680-688.
Goswami, U. (1992, cited in Lennox, 1994). Annotation: phonological factors in
spelling development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 967-975.
Goswami, U., & Mead, F. (1992). Onset and rime awareness and analogies in reading.
Reading Research Quarterly, 27(2), 153-162.
Goswamin, U., & Bryant, P. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. London:
LEA.
Gough, P. B., Juel, C., & Griffith, P. L. (1992) Reading , spelling, and the
orthographic cipher. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman, (Eds.), Reading
acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Griffith, P. L., & Olson, M. W. (1992). Phonemic awareness helps beginning readers
break the code. The Reading Teacher, 45(March), 516-523.
Haber, L. R., & Haber, R. N. (1982) Does silent reading involve articulation?
Evidence from tongue twisters. American Journal of Psychology, 95(3), 409-
419.
Hardyk, C. D., & Petrinovitch, L. R. (1970). Subvocal speech and comprehension
level as a function of the difficulty level of reading material. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 647-52.
Hebb, D. O. (1949). Organization of behavior. Wiley, New York.
Hills, J. R. (1981). Measurement and evaluation in the classroom (2nd ed.). Columbus,
OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Holm, A., & Dodd, B. (1996). The effect of first written language on the acquisition
of English literacy. Cognition, 59, 119-147.
Huey, E. B. (1908). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. Macmillan, New York.
Hung, D. L., Tzeng, O. J. L., & Tzeng, A. K. Y. (1992). Automatic activation of
linguistic information in Chinese character recognition. In R. Frost, & L. Katz
(Eds.), Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning. New York: Elsevier
Science Publishers.
Hung, H. S., & Hanley, J. R. (1994). Phonological awareness and visual skills in
learning to read Chinese and English. Cognition, 54, 73-98.
Ing, R. O. (1984). Mandarin pronunciation of Taiwan: An analysis of recent trends
and errors. Proceedings of the First International Conference on the Teaching of
Chinese as a second language, pp.412-424.
Iversen, S., & Tunmer, W. E. (1993). Phonological processing skills and the reading
recovery program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(1), 112-126.
Johnson, K. (1996). Language teaching and skill learning. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
Jorm, A. F., & Share, D. L. (1983). Phonological recoding and reading acquisition.
Applied Psycholinguistics, 4, 103-147.
Juel, C., Griffith, P., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal
study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 243-255.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of reading and language
comprehension. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Katamba, F. (1989). An introduction to phonology. New York: Longman.
Katz, L., & Frost, R. (1992). The reading process is different for different
orthographies: The orthographic depth hypothesis. In R. Frost, & L. Katz (Eds.),
Orthography, phonology, morphology and meaning. New York: Elsevier
Science Publishers.
Kenyon, J. S., & Knott, T. A. (1953). A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English.
Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam.
Kertley, C., Bryant, P., Maclean, M., & Bradely, L. (1989). Rhyme, rime and the
onset of reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18, 201-212.
Klapp, S. T. (1971). Implicit speech inferred from response latencies in same-
different decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 91, 262-267.
Kleiman, G. M. (1975). Speech recoding in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and
Verbal Behavior, 14, 323-339.
Ko, H., & Lee, J. R. (1996). Chinese children phonological awareness ability and later
reading ability-a longitudinal study. Journal of National Chung Cheng
University, 7(1), 49-66.
Ko, H., & Lee, J. R. (1996). Phonological awareness and learning to read in illiterate
adults. Journal of National Chung Cheng University, 7(1), 29-47
Koda, K. (1989). Effects of L1 orthographic representation on L2 phonological
coding strategies. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 18(2), 201-222.
Koda, K. (1990). The use of L1 reading strategies in L2 reading. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 12(4), 393-410.
Krashen, S. D. (1987). Applications of psycholinguistic research to the classroom. In
M. H. Long, & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Methodology in TESOL : A book of
readings. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
Kreiner, D. S., & Gough, P. B. (1990). Two ideas about spelling: Rules and word-
specific memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 29(1), 103-118.
Ladefoged, P. (1982). A course in phonetics (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovaovich.
Lennox, C. (1994). The role of phonological and orthographic progress in learning to
spell. In G. D. A. Brown, & N. C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of spelling. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Lesgold, A., Resnick, L. B., & Hammond, K. (1985). Learning to read: A longitudinal
study of word skill development in two curricula. In G. E. Mackinnon, & T. G.
Waller (Eds.), Reading Research: Advances in theory and Practice (Vol. 4,
pp.107-138). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Levin, H. & Watson, J. (1963). The learning of variable grapheme-to-phoneme
correspondences: Variations in the initial consonant position. In A Basic
Research Program on Reading, US Office of Education Cooperative Research
Project no. 639, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University.
Levy, B. A. (1977). Reading: Speech and meaning processes. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 623-638.
Lewkowicz, N. K. (1980). Phonemic awareness training: what to teach and how to
teach it. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(5), 686-700.
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fisher, F. W., & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable
and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 18, 201-212.
Liberman, I. Y., & Mann, V. (1981). Should reading instruction vary with the sex of
the child? In A. Ansara, N. Geschwind, A. Galaburda, M. Albert., & N. Gartrell
(Eds.), Sex differences in dyslexia. Baltimore: Orton Dyslexia Society.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J., & Pertersen, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for
stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research
Quarterly, 23(3). 263-284.
Lyon, G. R. (1998). Why reading is not a natural process? Educational Leadership,
March, 14-18
Maclean, M., Bryant, P., & Bradley, L. (1987). Rhymes, nursery rhymes, and reading
in early childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33(3) 255-281.
Mann, V. A., & Liberman, I. Y. (1984). Phonological awareness and verbal short-term
memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 592-599.
Mann, V. A. (1986). Phonological awareness: The role of reading experience.
Cognition, 24,65-92.
Mann, V. A., Tobin, P. & Wilson, R. (1987). Measuring phonological awareness
through the invented spellings of kindergarten children. Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, 33(3), 365-389.
Marcel, T. (1980). Phonological awareness and phonological representation:
investigation of a specific spelling problem. In U. Frith (Ed.), Cognitive
processes in spelling. London: Academic Press.
Marrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (1997). Strategies used for phonics instruction in
early childhood classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 50(8), 644-651.
Marsh, G., Friedman, M., Welch, U., & Desberg, P. (1980). The development of
strategies in spelling. In U. Frith (Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling. Toronto:
Academic Press.
McBride-Chang, C. (1996). Models of speech perception and phonological processing
in reading. Child development, 67, 1836-1856.
McCutchen, D., & Perfetti, C. H. (1982). The visual tongue-twister effect:
phonological activation in silent reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 21, 672-687.
McCutchen, D., Bell, L. C., France, I. M., & Perfetti, C. A. (1991). Phoneme-specific
interference in reading: The tongue-twister effect revisited. Reading Research
Journal, 26(1), 87-103.
McGuinness, D., McGuinness, C., & Dohohue, J. (1995). Phonological training and
the alphabet principle: evidence for reciporal causality. Reading Research
Quarterly, 30(4), 830-852.
Mitchell, D. C. (1982). The process of reading. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (1997). Strategies used for phonics instruction in
early childhood classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 50(8), 644-651.
Mou, L. C., & Anderson, N. S. (1981). Graphemic and phonemic codings of Chinese
characters in short-term retention. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 17,
255-258.
O'Connor, R. E., Slocum, T. A., & Jenkins, J. R. (1995). Transfer among
phonological tasks in kindergarten: Essential instructional content. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 87(2), 202-217.
Paap, K. R., Noel, R. W., & Johansen, L. S. (1992). Dual-route models of print to
sound: Red herrings and real horses. In R. Frost, & L. Katz (Eds.), Orthography,
phonology, morphology, and meaning. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Perfetti, C. A., Beck, I., & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning
to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-
Palmer Quarter, 33, 283-319.
Perfetti, C. A. (1991). The representation problem in reading acquisition. In P. B.
Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Perfetti, C. A., & Hogaboam, T. (1975). Relationship between single word decoding
and reading comprehension skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(4), 461-
469.
Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Perfetti, C. A., & Goldman, S. R. (1976). Discourse memory and reading
comprehension skill. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 33-42.
Perfetti, C. A. (1991). Representations and awareness in the acquisition of reading
competence. In L. Rieben, & C. A. Perfetti (Eds.), Learning to read. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Perfetti, C. A., & Zhang, S. (1991). Phonological recoding in reading Chinese
characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17(4), 633-643.
Perfetti, C. A., Zhang, S., & Berent, I. (1992) Reading in English and Chinese:
Evidence for a "universal" phonological principle. In R. Frost, & L. Katz (Eds.),
Orthography, phonology, morphology, and meaning. New York: Elsevier Science
Publishers.
Pratt, A. C., & Brady, S. (1988). Relation of phonological awareness to reading
disability in children and adults. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 319-
323.
Read, C. (1973). Children's judgements of phonetic similarities in relation to English
spelling. Language Learning, 23, 17-38.
Reitsma, P. (1983). Printed word learning in beginning readers. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 36, 321-339.
Rosewell-Chall Auditory Blending Test (1959). New York: Essay Press.
Rosner, J. (1972). The development and validation of an individualized perceptual
skills curriculum. Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research
and Develop Center.
Rubenstein, H., & Lewis, S. S., & Rubenstein, M. A. (1971). Evidence for phonemic
in visual word recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10,
647-657.
Scovel, T. (1969). Foreign accents, language acquisition, and cerebral dominance..
Language Learning, 19, 245-254.
Shankweiler, D., & Lundquist, E. (1992) On the relations between learning to spell
and learning to read. In R. Frost, & K. Leonard (Eds.), Orthography, phonology,
morphology, and meaning. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Share, D. L., Jorm, A. G., Maclean, R., & Matthews, R. (1984). Sources of individual
differences in reading acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1309-
1324.
Shwedel, A. M. (1983). Must we use phonology to read? What Chinese can tell us.
Journal of Reading, 26(8), 707-713.
Siegel, L. S. (1995). Phonological and phoneme awareness in early literacy: A
developmental approach. Reading Research Quarterly, 30(4), 854-875.
Slobin, D. I. (1971). Psycholinguistics. Glenview, III.: Scott, Foresman.
Snowling, M. J. (1994). Toward a model of spelling acquisition: the development of
some component skills. In G. D. A. Brown, & N. C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of
spelling. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Spring, C. (1978). Automaticity of word recognition under phonics and whole word
instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 445-450.
Stage, S. A., & Wagner, R. K. (1992). Development of young children's phonological
and orthographic knowledge as revealed by their spellings. Developmental
Psychology, 28(2), 287-296.
Stahl, S. A. (1992). Saying the "p" word: Nine guidelines for exemplary phonics
instruction. The Reading Teacher, 45(8), 618-626.
Stanovich, K. E., Cunningham, A. E., & Cramer, B. (1984). Assessing phonological
awareness in kindergarten children: Issues of task comparability. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 38, 175-190.
Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Changing models of reading and reading acquisition. In L.
Rieben & C. A. Perfetti (Eds.), Learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbum Associates.
Stemberger, J. P., & Treiman, R. (1986). The internal structure of word-initial
consonant clusters. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 163-180.
Strickland, D. S. (1998, March). What's basic in beginning reading. Educational
Leadership, 6-10.
Su, F. H. (1996). Pseudowords naming by Taiwanese students of English.
Proceedings of the 13th ROC TEFL, pp. 21-30.
Thorndike, E. L., & Lorge, I. (Eds.). (1963). The teacher's word book of 30,000
words. New York: Teachers College Press.
Treiman, R., & Baron, J. (1983). Individual differences in spelling: The Phoenician-
Chinese distinction. Topics in Leaning and Learning Disabilities, 3, 33-40
Treiman, R. (1985). Onset and rimes as units of spoken syllables: Evidence from
children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 161-181.
Treiman, R. (1994). Sources of information used by beginning spellers. In G. D. A.
Brown, & N. C. Ellis (Eds.), Handbook of spelling. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Tse, K. P. (1992). Production and perception of syllable final [n] and [N] in Mandarin
Chinese: An experimental study. Studies in English Literature and Linguistics,
143-156.
Tunmer, W. E., & Nesdale, A. R. (1985). Phonemic segmentation skills and beginning
reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(4), 417-427.
Tunmer, W. E., Herriman, M. L., & Nesdale, A. (1988). Metalinguistic abilities and
beginning reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(2), 135-158.
Tunmer, W. E. (1991). Phonological awareness and literacy. In L. Rieben & C. A.
Perfetti (Eds.), Learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tzeng, O. J. L., & Hung, D. L. (1977). Speech recoding in reading Chinese
characters. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(6), 621-630.
Tzeng, C. C. (1988). Ting Chueh Chang Ai Hsueh Sheng Chung Wen Tau Huo Tzu Te
Tzu Hui Chu Chiao Chuan Lu Kuo Cheng Yen Chiu (The study of the
phonological recoding of Mandarin words/phrases of the learners with hearing
problems). Master thesis. Department of Special Education, University of
Taiwan Normal University.
Tzeng, S. C. (1999). Kuo Yu Wen Ti Cheng Chiu Hsueh Tung Chih Kung Tso Chi
Yi、Sheng Yun Chu Li Neng Li Yu NienMing Su Tu Chih Yen Chiu (The study
of the working memory span, phonological processing abilities and naming
speed of young schoolers of low achievements in the language arts of Mandarin
Chinese). Proceedings of the Conference on Reading Difficulties in Chinese: A
Diagnosis Perspective. Department of Psychology, National Chung-Cheng
University.
Uhry, J. K., & Shepherd, M. J. (1993). Segmentation/spelling instruction as part of a
first-grade reading program: Effects on several measures of reading. Reading
Research Quarterly, 28(3), 219-233.
Vandervelden, M C., & Siegel, L. S. (1995). Phonological recoding and phoneme
awareness in early literacy: A developmental approach. Reading Research
Quarterly, 30(4), 854-875.
Van Order, G. C., Hale, B. L., & Johnston, J. C. (1988). Word identification in reading
proceeds from spelling to sound to meaning. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14(3), 371-386.
Vellutino, F. R., & Scanlon, D. M. (1987). Linguistic coding and reading ability. In S.
Rosenberg (Ed.), Advances in applied linguistics, Vol. 1, Disorder of first-
language development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Verhoeven, L. T. (1990). Acquisition of reading in a second language. Reading
Research Quarterly, 25(2), 90-114.
Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of psychological processing and
its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101,
192-212.
Wagner, R. K. (1988). Causal relationships between the development of phonological
processing abilities and the acquisition of reading skills : A meta-analysis.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34(3), 261-279.
Wallach, M. A., & Wallach, L. (1976). Teaching all children to read. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Walsh, D. J., Price, G. G., Gillingham, M. G. (1988). The critical but transitory
importance of letter naming. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(1), 108-122.
Waters, G., Bruck, M., & Seidenberg, M. (1985). Do children use similar processes to
read and spell words? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 511-530.
Weir, R. H., & Venezky, R. L. (1968). Spelling-to-sound patterns. In K. S. Goodman
(Ed.), The psycholinguistic nature of the reading process. Michigan: Wayne State
University Press.
Wepman, J. M. (1973). Auditory discrimination test (Revised ed.). Chicago, IL:
Language Research Associates.
Wylie, R., & Durrell, D. (1970). Teaching vowels through phonograms. Elementary
English, 47, 787-791.
Yik, W. F. (1978). The effect of visual and acoustic similarity on short-term memory
For Chinese words. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30, 487-494.
Yopp, H. K. (1988), The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading
Research Quarterly, 23(2), 159-177.
Yu, B., Zhang, W., Jing, Q., Peng, R., Zhang, G., & Simon, H. A. (1985). STM
capacity for Chinese and English language materials. Memory and Cognition, 13, 202-207.
Yuan, J.H. (1960). Hanyu Fangyan Gaivao (Outlines of Chinese Dialects). Beijing,
Wenzi gaige chubanshe.
Zhang, G., & Simon, H. A. (1985). STM capacity for Chinese words and idioms:
Chunking and acoustical loop hypothesis. Memory and Cognition, 13, 193-201.
Zhurova, L. E. (1963). The development of analysis of words into their sounds by
preschool children. Soviet Psychology and Psychiatry, 2, 17-27.