簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

研究生: 古智雄
Chih-Hsiung Ku
論文名稱: 國小學童科學問題合理性判斷的熱認知喚起與弱化作用
The Arousal and Weakening Effect of Hot Cognition on Children’s Judgment of Reasonableness in Science Questions
指導教授: 楊文金
Yang, Wen-Gin
學位類別: 博士
Doctor
系所名稱: 科學教育研究所
Graduate Institute of Science Education
論文出版年: 2001
畢業學年度: 89
語文別: 中文
論文頁數: 216
中文關鍵詞: 熱認知合理性理性刻板化
英文關鍵詞: hot cognition, reasonableness, rationality, sterotype
論文種類: 學術論文
相關次數: 點閱:144下載:30
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報
  • 本研究分析國小學童在科學問題合理性判斷上的熱認知效應,並進而探討熱認知的弱化作用。主要從學童班級聚集地位、社會常模及權威加持等三個熱認知變項進行熱認知效應的分析。在熱認知的弱化上,則施以班級小組討論及短文閱讀之處方。研究的主要發現如下:
    一、 學童在科學問題合理性判斷裡,受到熱認知變項的影響,的確有熱認知的效應發生。
    1. 在前後測裡,A、B選項合理度的變化幅度,實驗組與對照組確有不同。正向強化A選項的班級,所有A選項的上升幅度平均值達7.9%,相對的B選項則下降了8.4%。而正向強化B選項的班級,所有A選項下降的幅度平均值達6.6%,相對的B選則上升了8.1%。而對照組則只有2.3%與1.5%。
    2. 在前後測裡,A、B選項合理度的變化之顯著性考驗,實驗組與對照組確有不同。正向強化A選項的所有班級全部48個A選項的變化,有22個達到顯著性差異(P<.05),B選項則有21個達到顯著性差異(P<.05)。而正向強化B選項的班級,全部40個A選項的變化,有17個達到顯著性差異(P<.05),B選項則有19個達到顯著性差異(P<.05)。而對照組在全部四個班的64個選項中,只有5個達到顯著性差異(P<.05)。
    二、 學童經過班級小組討論及短文閱讀之後,熱認知效應確有弱化的現象。
    1. 經過班級小組討論及短文閱讀的班級F605。第一次測試時,所有8個題目的A選平均上升幅度為5.2%,B選項則平均下降10.2%,而達到顯著性差異的項目有5項(P<.05)。第二次測試時,A選項平均變化幅度只為-0.2%,而B選項則為-2.6%。
    2. 只經過短文閱讀的班級,也有熱認知弱化的作用。第二次前後測的變化幅度確實變小。E506第二次測試的加總變化量(2.9, -5.0)小於第一次測試的加總變化量(8.4, -12.2)。其中學童聚集地位部分弱化的效應較為明顯,而社會常模及權力加持則相對的較不明顯。
    三、 學童在熱認知的自我知覺測試裡,自評部分與合理性判斷測試裡的熱認知效應有所差異。但是經過弱化處理之後,二者較為吻合。自我知覺測試對學童察覺熱認知現象應有其正面作用。

    This research studies the arousal of hot cognition on children’s judgment of reasonableness in science questions. It further studies the effect of the attempt to "cool" the hot cognition. The study analyzes three attributes that affect hot cognition: children’s aggregated status in the class, social norms, and authoritative reinforcement. In the weakening of hot cognition, group discussion and essay reading are employed.
    The following are our findings:
    A. There is indeed hot cognition arousal effect in children’s judgment of reasonableness in science questions.
    1. In the pre and post-tests, the percentage of change of the reasonableness for choice A and B does show a difference between the test groups and the contrast groups. For the classes that choice A is reinforced, the average percentage of increase for choice A is 7.9%, while choice B has decreased by 8.4%. For the classes that choice B is reinforced, the average percentage of decrease for choice A is 6.6%, while choice B has increased by 8.1%. For the contrast groups, the percentage of change is only 2.3% and 1.5%.
    2. In the pre and post-tests, the T-test of the amount of change of the reasonableness for choice A and B also show a difference between the test groups and the contrast groups. For the classes that choice A is reinforced, 22 of the 48 items of choice A and 21 items of choice B show a significant difference(P<.05). For the classes that choice B is reinforced, 17 of the 40 items of choice A and 19 items of choice B show a significant difference(P<.05). For the contrast groups, there are only 5 of the 64 items in all 4 classes show a significant change.
    B. After group discussion and essay reading, there is indeed a weakening effect of the hot cognition.
    1. We put Class F605 through a group discussion and essay reading. During the first test, the average percentage of increase is 5.2% for choice A of all 8 items, while choice B has decreased by 10.2%. 5 items show a significant difference. During the second test, the average percentage of change for choice A is –0.2%, and for choice B is –2.6%.
    2. Even for the classes that only went through essay reading, there is also an weakening effect of the hot cognition. The percentage of change is perceptibly smaller. For the class E506, the average percentage of differences (2.9, -5.0) in the second pre and post-tests is smaller than (8.4, -12.2) that test in the first.
    C. In the analysis of children’s self- perceptions about their hot cognition, there is a significant discrepancy between their self- perceptions and the actual test before. While through weakening treatment, both are more consistent.

    目 次 第壹章 緒論………………………………………………………………… 1 第一節 研究背景………………………………………………… 1 第二節 研究的重要性…………………………………………… 5 第三節 研究目的與問題 ……………………………………… 9 第四節 研究限制與範圍………………………………………… 10 第五節 名詞釋義 …………………………..…………………… 12 第貳章 文獻探討…………………………………………………………… 15 第一節 去情境化的合理性判斷與冷認知……………………… 16 第二節 互動合理性的社會構成……………….…………………. 19 第三節 熱認知的喚起與弱化……..……………………………. 33 第四節 熱認知與合理性判斷……………………………………. 53 第五節 當代合理性概念的社會意涵…………………………… 66 第參章 研究方法……………………………………………………………. 77 第一節 研究設計…………………………………………………. 79 第二節 研究對象的選取…………………………………………. 82 第三節 研究工具…………………………………………………. 84 第四節 研究程序…………………………………………………. 90 第五節 資料處理與分析…………………………………………. 93 第肆章 結果與討論…………………………………………………………. 97 第一節 科學問題合理性判斷的熱認知效應…………………….. 98 第二節 熱認知效應的弱化作用……………………………………. 129 第三節 學習歷程中的熱認知自我知覺分析……………………. 145 第伍章 結論與建議…………………………………………………………. 175 第一節 結論………………………………………………………. 175 第二節 建議………………………………………………………. 178 參考文獻 …………………………………………………………………….. 185 附件一 班級結構問卷……………………………………………………….. 203 附件二 科學問題合理度測驗卷…………………………………………… 205 附件三 學童自我知覺問卷………………………………………………… 208 附件四 自然科小組討論工作單…………………………………………… 210 附件五 教師對學童熱認知自我知覺問卷………………………………… 213 附件六 熱認知弱化閱讀短文……………………………………………….. 216

    參考文獻
    一、 中文部分:
    方東美(1987):《實驗主義》。台北中和:仰哲出版。
    王士平(1998):《科學的爭論》。北京:科學出版社。
    古智雄(1997):近代科學理性概念及其在科學教育上的意涵。《國際人文年刊》,7,199-222。
    林正弘(1995):卡爾.波柏否證論之困境。《第四屆美國文學與思想研討會論文選集:哲學篇》(何志青;洪裕宏主編),79-94。台北:中央研究院歐美研究所。
    林正弘(1993):論孔恩的典範概念。《》第二屆美國文學與思想研討會論文集。517-533。台北:中央研究院歐美研究所。
    吳幸宜譯(1994):M. E. Grdeler著《學習理論與教學應用》。台北:心理。
    吳慶軍,古智雄(1997):《從二元編碼理論探討原住民學童光學概念的心智表徵及其在教學上的意涵》。國科會專題研究成果報告( NSC86-2511-S-026-001)(未出版)。
    幸曼玲(1995):當前兒童發展理論與研究對教育的啟示。《教育資料與研究》,4,3-13。
    邱美虹(1993):類比與科學概念的學習。《教育研究資訊》,1(6),79-90。
    邱旻昇(1999)︰《從期望地位的觀點探討學生在科學小組討論中互動的平等性》。臺北:臺灣師範大學科學教育研究所碩士論文(未出版)。
    徐文瑞(1998):《偶然、反諷與團結---一個實用主義者的政治想像》。台北市:麥田出版。
    洪志成(1990):建構主義初探:兼論其在教育上的啟示。《臺灣省第一屆教育學術論文發表會論文集》,1-14。
    洪振方(1994):《從孔恩異例的認知與論證探討科學知識的重建》。國立台灣師範大學科學教育研究所博士論文(未出版)。
    郭重吉(1992):從建構主義的觀點探討中小學數理教學的改進。《科學發展月刊》,20(5),548-570。
    郭重吉、許玫理(1992):從科學哲學觀點的演變探討科學教育的過去與未來。《彰化師範大學學報》,3,531-561。
    張世忠(1994):從社會建構學者的觀點看學生的分享對概念學習上的重要性。《興大人文社會學報》,5,181-192。
    張春興(1989):《張氏心理學辭典》。台北市,東華書局,64-65。
    陳世輝(1983):兒童科學概念獲得之研究--我國新編小學自然科學課程之科學概念及影響其獲得因素之分析。《花師學報》,14,217-298。
    陳世輝(1987):兒童人體器官概念發展之研究。《花蓮師院學報》,1,419-530。
    陳世輝(1989):《兒童生物分類型概念獲得之研究--概念之精熟層次、錯誤概念與城鄉、年級、性別、認知因素之關係》。花蓮市:真義出版社。
    陳世輝、古智雄(1995):《山地兒童生物概念及生物分類之研究》。國科會專題研究成果報告( NSC84-2511-S-026-002N)。
    陳世輝、古智雄(1996):《山地兒童動物概念及動物分類之研究》。國科會專題研究成果報告( NSC85-2511-S-026-001)。
    陳正乾(1995):從維高斯基(Vygotsky)的理論來探討其對幼兒教育的應用。《教育資料與研究》,4,14-19。
    莊嘉坤(1997):學童對自然科學的態度與科學學習。《科學教育面面觀》。屏東市:國立屏東師範學院印行。
    曾守恆(1997)︰《「同儕科學家意象」對科學知識重建過程的影響分析》。臺北市:國立臺灣師範大學物理研究所碩士論文(未出版)。
    曾志華(1995):淺談社會建構論在數學教育上的應用。《教師之友》,36(5), 45-49。
    舒偉光、邱仁宗(1990):《當代西方科學哲學述評》。台北市:水牛出版社。
    黃光國(1995):《知識與行動-中華文化傳統的社會心理詮釋》,9-10頁;48-49頁。台北:心理出版社。
    黃忠雄(1997):《國中生「同儕科學家意象」對科學概念合理性判斷的影響》。國立台灣師範大學地球科學研究所碩士論文(未出版)。
    黃俊儒(2000):《從社會互動與認知投入的觀點探討理化實驗課中學習機會之分佈》。國立台灣師範大學科學教育研究所博士論文(未出版)。
    楊文金(1996a):「同儕科學家意像」及其對信念選擇的影響。《中華民國第十二屆科學教育學術研討會會議手冊》,60頁。
    楊文金(1996b):比較、社會比較、與科學學習動機。《科學教育月刊》,195,2-15。
    楊文金(1997):社會類別對信念選擇的影響分析。《科學教育學刊》,5(1),1-21。
    楊文金(1998):「同儕科學家意像」對訊息合理性判斷的影響分析。《師大學報:科學教育類》,43(1),1-17。
    楊文金(1999):「期望地位」對同儕互動的影響分析。《科學教育學刊》,7(3), 217-232。
    楊莉川(1997)︰《從社會認同理論探討高中生傾向科學的態度》。臺北市:國立臺灣師範大學科學教育研究所碩士論文(未出版)。
    吳定遠譯(1977):H. Reichenbach 著,《科學的哲學之興起》(The Rise of Scientific Philosophy.)。台北:水牛。
    蔣佳玲、郭重吉(1997):同儕間科學問題討論中的合作與權力關係。《中華民國第十三屆科學教育學術研討會論文彙編》,627-634。
    蔡敏玲(1995):在文化脈胳中創塑意義:從Vygotsky的理論思考「文化刺激」的議題。《教育資料與研究》,4,20-24。
    趙金祁(1993):三維人文科技通識架構芻議。《科學教育月刊》,160,10-17。
    趙金祁(1995):《人文科技的通識與通適問題》。行政院國科會專題研究計畫成果報告「科學與人文平衡研究規劃協調計畫」(NSC 83-0111-S-003-017)。
    趙金祁、許榮富、黃芳裕(1992):科學哲學對科學知識主體主張的演變。《科學教育月刊》,154,2-18。
    滕守堯(1995):《對話理論》。台北市:揚智文化。
    劉錫麒(1999):《建構主義取向教學的隱喻─對話》。國立花蓮師範學院八十七學年度學術研討會論文集,1-16。
    劉錫麒(1977):花蓮泰雅族兒童的泛靈論。《花蓮師專學報》,9,118-124。
    邱顯正譯(1993):F. J. Dyson, 著,《宇宙波瀾》(Disturbing the Universe.)。台北:天下文化出版公司。
    羅文杰,(1998):《兩種「班級結構」分類法在國小「同儕科學家意象」的維度上之比較分析》。臺北市:國立臺灣師範大學科學教育研究所碩士論文 (未出版)。
    二、 英文部分:
    Angus, J. W. (1981). Children's conceptions of the living world. The Australian Science Teacher Journal, 27(3), 65-68.
    Ansari, M. A., & Kapoor, A. (1987). Organizational context and upward influence tacits. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 40, 39-49.
    Augoustinos, M. & Walker, I. (1995). Social Cognition: An Integrated introduction. London: Sage.
    Barnes, B. (1982). T. S. Kuhn and Social Science (pp.2-5). Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD.
    Bauersfeld, H. (1988). Interaction, construction, and knowledge: Alternative perspectives for mathematics education, Effective Mathematics teaching. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
    Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-percption theory. In L. Berkowitz(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology(Vol. 6, pp. 1-62). New York: Academic Press.
    Berelter, C. (1994). Constructivism, Socioculturalism, and Popper's world 3. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 21-23.
    Berscheild, E., Graziano, W., Monson, T., & Dermer, M. (1976). Outcome dependency: Attention, attribution, and attration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 978-989.
    Best, J. B. (1989). Cognitive Psychology. New York: WEST publishing company.
    Bevilacqua, F., & Giannetto, E. (1995). Hermenutics and science education: The role of history of science. Science & Education 4, 115-126.
    Bianchini, J. A. (1997). Where knowledge construction, equity and context interact: student learning of science in small groups. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 1039-1065.
    Billeh, Victor Y. I. (1969): Cultural bias in the attainment of concepts the biological cell by elementary school children. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Wisconsin) University Microfilms. A Xerox Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
    Billett, S. (1996). "Toward a model of workplace learning: The learning curriculum." Studies in Continuing Education, 18(1), 43-58.
    BouJauode, S. (1996). Epistemology and sociology of science according to Lebanese educators and student. ED394848.
    Brophy, J. (1986).Teaching and Learning Mathematics: Where Research Should Be Going. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 17(5), 323-46.
    Bruner, J. S.(1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
    Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J. V. Wertsch(Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskisn perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    Burbulus, C., & Linn, M. C. (1991). Science education and philosophy of science congruence or contradiction. International Journal of Science Education, 13(3), 227-241.
    Canary, D. J., Cody, M. J., & Marston, P. J. (1986). Goal Types, compliance-gaining, and locus of control. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 5, 249-269.
    Chao, C. C. (1975): A study of conceptual elements involved in two physics terms for students of different cultural backgrounds. Dissertation Abstracts, 35(8), 5146A.
    Chen, S., & Ku, C. (1997). A study of the concept "living organism" and living organism classification in aboriginal children. Proceedings of the National Science Council Part D:Mathematics, Science and Techology Education, 7(2), 96-109.
    Cheng, J. L. (1983).Organizational context and upward influence: An experimental study of the use of power tacits. Group and Organization Studies, 8, 337-355.
    Cohen, E. G., & Lotan, R.A. (1995). Producing equal-status interaction in the heterogeneous classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 99-120.
    Cole, M., & Engestrom, Y. (1993). A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognition. In M. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychology and Educational Considerations.
    Cole, M. (1991). On socially shared cognitions. In Resnick, J. Levine,& S. Behrend (Eds.), Socially shared cognitions (pp.398-417). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
    Collin, A. (1998). New challenges in the study of career. Personnel Review, 27(5), 412-425.
    Cowan, G., Drunkard, J., & MacGavin, L. (1984).The effects of target , age, and gender on use of power strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1391-1398.
    Das, J. P., Nagllieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). Assessment of Cognitive Processes.(pp.162-171). Allyn and Bacon published.
    Davis, R. B., Maher, C. A., & Noddings, N. (Eds.).(1990). Constructivist views on the teaching and learning of mathematics (Monograph 4). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
    De Corte, E. (1985). Influence of Rewording Verbal Problems on Children's Problem Representations and Solutions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(4), 460-470.
    Driver, R. (1981). Pupils' alternative frameworks in science. European Journal of Science Education, 3(1), 93-101.
    Driver, R. (1983). The pupil as scientist. Milton Keynes: Open University press.
    Driver, R., & Bell, B. (1986). Student thinking and the learning of science: A constructivist view. School Science Review, 67, 443-456.
    Driver, R., & Erickson, G. (1983). Theories-in-action: some theoretical and empirical frameworks in science. Studies in Science Education, 10, 37-60.
    Driver, R., & Oldham, V. (1986). A constructivist approach to curriculum development in science. Studies in Science Education, 13, 105-122.
    Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J A., & Holzberg, A. (1989). Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self serving assessment of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1082-1090.
    Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Inc.
    Edwards, D., & Mercer, N.(1989). Reconstructing Context: The Conventionalization of Classroom Knowledge. Discourse Processes, 12(1),1-104.
    Ernest, P. (1995). The one and the many. In L. P. Steffe & J.Gale (Eds.), Constructivism in education (pp.459-486). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erbium Associates.
    Esses, V. M., & Zanna, M. P. (1995). Mood and expression of ethic sterotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1052-1068.
    Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognition dissonance. Standford, CD: Standford University Press.
    Fisher K.,M., & Lipson, J. I. (1985). Information Processing Interpretation of Errors in College ScienceLearning. Instructional Science, 14(1), 49-74.
    Forgas, J. P. (1994). Sad and Guilty? Affective influences on the explanation of conflict in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 56-68.
    Forsyth, D. R. (1990). Group Dynamics. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
    Fosnot, C. T. (1993). Rethinking Science Education: A Defense of Piagetian Constructivism. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30 (9), 1189-1201.
    French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Carteright (Ed.), Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
    Gergen, K. J. (1985). Social constructionist inquiry: Context and implication. In K. J. Gergen & K.Davis(Eds.) The Social Construction of the Person(pp.3-18). New York: Springer-Verlag.
    Gergen, K. J.(1995).Social construction and the educational process. In L. P. Steffe & J. Gale(Eds.), Constructivism in Education (pp.17-39). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
    Gigerenzer, G. (1996). Rationality: why social context matters Interactive Minds: life span perspectives on the social foundation of congtion. London: Sage.
    Gilbert, J., & Watts, M. (1983). Concepts, misconceptions and alternative conceptions: changing perspectives in science education. Studies in Science Education, 10, 61-98.
    Ginev, D. (1995).Between epistemology and hermeneutics. Science & Education, 4, 147-159.
    Goldin, G. A.(1989). Constructivist Epistemology and Discovery Learning in Mathematics.,15-22. In G. Vergnaud et al. (Eds): ACTES DE LA 13EME Conference Internationale, Vol. II, Paris, France.
    Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B. (1996). Goal effects on action and cognition. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski(Eds. ), Social Psychology : Handbook of Basic principles(pp.361-399). New York: Guilford Press.
    Hatano, M.(1993). Development of Biological Knowledge: A Multi-National Study Cognitive Development, 8(1),47-62.
    Haugen, R., & Lund, T. (1998). Attributional style and its relation to personality dispositions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68: 537-549.
    Hempel, C. G. (1966). Philosophy of Nature Science. Taipei: Prentice-Hall.
    Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., Kirkus,V. B., & Miller, N. (1992). Implications of current research on cooperative interaction for classroom application. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz, & N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative groups:The theoretical anatomy of group learning(pp. 253-280), Cambridge University Press.
    Hogan, K. (1999). Relating students' personal frameworks for science learning to their cognition in collaborative contexts. Science Education, 83, 1-32.
    Hovland, C. I., & Weiss, W. (1951).The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15,635-50.
    Howe, A. C., & Stubbs, H. S. (1997). Empowering science teacher:A model for professional development. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 8(3), 167-182.
    Hudson, T. (1983). Correspondences and numerical differences between disjoin sets. Child Development, 54, 84-90.
    Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., & Karp, L. (1978). Resources required in the construction and restruction of conversation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1-12.
    Jenkins, E. W. (1994). Public understanding of science and science education for action. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 26(6), 601-611.
    Johnson, S. D., & Thomas, R. G. (1994). Implications of cognitive science for instructional design in technology education. Journal of technology studies, 20(1), 33-45.
    Kelman, H. C. (1958). Compliance, identification, and internalization: Three processof attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 51-60.
    Kelman, H. C. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 57-78.
    Kerka, S. (1997). Constructivism, workplace learning, and vocational education. ERIC Digest. ED407573.
    Kilpatrick, J. (1987). What constructivism might be in Mathematics education. In J. C. Bergeron(Ed.), Proceeding of the Psychology of Mathematics education,(vol I), Montreal(pp.19-25). London: Routledge.
    Kipnis, D. (1984). The use of power in organizations and in interpersonal settings. In S.Oskamp(Ed.), Applied social psychology annual(Vol. 5, pp.179-210). Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
    Kipnis, D., Schmidt, S. M., Swaffin-Smith, C., & Wilkinson, I. (1984). Patterns of managerial influence: Shotgun managers, tacticians, and bystanders. Organizational Dynamics, 12(3), 58-67.
    Kounin, J. S. (1970).Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
    Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Harvester Wheatsheaf published.
    Kozulin, A. (1986). The concept of activity in Soviet Psychology: Vygotsky, his disciples and critics. American Psychologist, 41(3), 264-274.
    Kunda, Z. (2000). The impact of motivation and affect on judgment. Social Cognition: making sense of people. (pp.211-262). Massachusetts Institute of Techonology.
    Kunda, Z. (1987). Motivated inference: self-serving generation and evaluation of causal theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 636-647.
    Kunda, Z. (1990). The case of motivated reasoning. Psychology Bulletin, 108, 480-498.
    Kunda, Z., Sinclair, L., & Griffin, D. (1997). Equal rating but separate meaning: Sterotypes and the construal of traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 720-734.
    Leont'ev, A. A. (1973). Speech Norm as Social Norm. Linguistics 112,49-53.
    Leyens, J., Yzerbyt, V., & Schadron, G. (1994). Stereotypes and Social Cognition. Sage Publication.
    Loving, C. C. (1991). The scientific theory profile: A philosophy of science model for science teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(9), 823-838.
    Lucas, K. B., & Roth, W. M. (1996). The nature of scientific knowledge and student learning: Two longitudinal case stedies, Research in Science Education, 26, 103-129.
    Margolis, H. (1987). Pattern, Thinking, and Cognition: a theory of judgment. The Chicago University. Press.
    McCormack, A. J.(1992).Trends and issues in science education Science Curiculum Resource Handbook. Kraus international pub. 16041.
    Merton, R. (1973). The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and empirical investigation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
    Newton-Smith, W. H. (1983). The Rationality of Science. Boston: Routledge & Keagan Paul Plc.
    Newman, D., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1989). The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive Change in School. Cambridge University Press.
    Niaz, M. (1998). From cathode to alpha particles to quantum of action: a rational reconstruction of structure of the atom and its implications for chemistry textbooks. Science Education, 82, 527-552.
    Nussbaum, J. (1979). Classroom conceptual change: philosophical perspectives. International Journal of Science Education, 11, 530-540.
    Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality: Early approaches to stereotypes and prejudice. London: Sage.
    Petty, R. E., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K.D. (1980). The effects of group diffusion of cognitive effort on attitudes: An information processing view. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 81-92.
    Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: the many faces of constructivism. Educational Researcher,24(7), 5-12.
    Pinch, T. J., & Collins, A. (1984). Private science and public knowledge: The committee for the scientific investigation of the clams of the paranormal and its use of literature. Social Studies of Science, 14(4), 521-546.
    Poole, D. (1994). Routine testing practices and the linguistic construction of knowledge. Congition and Instruction, 12, 125-150.
    Pope, M., and Gilbert, J. (1983). Personal experience and the construction of knowledge in science. Science Education, 67(2), 193-203.
    Popper, K. (1963). Conjectures and Refutations. London:Hutchinson.
    Richmond, G., & Striley, J. (1996). Making meaning in classroom: social processes in small-group discourse and scientific knowledge building. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 839-858.
    Richards, D. E.(1970). The Acquisition of Selected Life Science Concepts by Beginning Kindergarten Children from Three Different Community Setting (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University). University Microfilms, A Xerox Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
    Rogoff, P. & Lave, D.(1984). Adjustment of adult-child instruction according to child's aAge and task. Developmental Psychology, 20(2),193-99.
    Rosebery, A. S., & Puttick, G. M. (1998). Teacher professional development as situated sense-making: A case study in science education. Science Education, 82, 649-677.
    Roth, W. M., & Roychoudhury, A. (1994). Physics students' epistemologies and view about knowing and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 5-30.
    Roth, W., & Bowen, G. M. (1995). Knowing and interacting: A study of culture, practices and resources in a grade 8 open inquiry science classroom guided by a cognitive apprenticeship metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13(1), 73-128.
    Roth, W. (1997). Interactional structures during a grade 4-5 open-design enginnering unit. Journal of Research inScience Teaching, 34(4), 273-302.
    Rusell, C. L. (1994). The social construction of other animals. Trumpter, 11(3), 36-40.
    Salomon, G. (1993). Editor's introduction. In G. Salomon (Ed.), Distributed Cognitions: Psychology and Educational Considerations( pp.Xi-XXi).
    Salovey, P., & Birnbaun, D. (1989). Influence of mood on health-relevant cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 539-551.
    Sanitioso, R., Kunda, Z., & Fong, G. T. (1990). Motivated recruitment of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 229-241.
    Sarkar, T. K. (1992). Knowledge, Truth and Justification. New Delfi: Allied Publishers.
    Sarkar, T. K. (1995). Changing concepts of `rationality' in science. In D. Andler (Ed.), Facets of Ratonality( pp.212-226). New Delfi: Allied Publishers.
    Schaller, M. (1992).In-group favoritism and statistical reasoning in social inference: Implication for formation and maintenance of group stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 61-74.
    Schommer, M. (1998). The influence of age and education on epistemological beliefs. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 551-562.
    Siegel, H. (1989). Why Be Rational? On Thinking Critically About Critically Thinking. Resource Publication, Series 2 No.1.
    Simon, M. A. (1995). Reconstructing Mathematics Pedagogy from a Constructivist Perspective Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 26(2 ):114-45.
    Slavin, R. E. (1984). Effects of Cooperative Learning and Individualized Instruction on Mainstreamed Students. Exceptional Children 50(5) ,434-438.
    Solomon, J. (1987). Social influences on the construction of pupils' understanding of science. Studies in science Education, 14,63-82.
    Solomon, J. (1992). Four frames for a field. In P. J. Black & A. M. Lucas(Eds.), Children's Informal Ideas in Science. London: Routledge.
    Solomon, J. (1994a). The Rise and Fall of Constructivism﹐Studies in Science Education﹐23, 1-19.
    Solomon J. (1994b). Group discussions in the classroom. In R. Levinson(Ed.), Teaching Science. London:Routledge.
    Sprod, T. (1998)."I Can Change Your Opinion on That": Social Constructivist WholeClass Discussions and Their Effect on Scientific Reasoning. Research in Science Education 28(4),463-80.
    Stodolsky, S. S., Salk, S., & Glaessner, B. (1991). Student views about learning math and social studies. American Educational Research Journal, 28: 89-116.
    Strong, S. R., Hills, H. I., Kilmartin, C. T., DeVries, H., Lanier, K., Nelson, B. N., Strickland, D., & Meyer, C. W. (1988). The dynamic relations among interpersonal behavior: A test of complememtarity and anti complememtarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 798-810.
    Teays, W. (1995). Second Thought. Mayfield Publishing Company.
    Tema, B. O. (1989). Rural and urban African pupils' alternative conceptions of "animal" Journal of Biological Education, 23(3),199-207.
    Tetlock, P. E., & Kim, J. I. (1987). Accountability and judgment processes in a personality prediction task. Journal of Persaonality and Social Psychology, 52, 700-709.
    Thargard, P. (1989). Scientific cognition: hot or cold. In S. Fuller et al. (Eds.) The cognitive Turn(pp. 71-82). Princeton:Princeton University Press.
    Tudge, M. & Winterhoff, H.(1993). Social World and Cognitive Development. Human Development. 36(2),61-81.
    Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 11067-85.
    Villalbi, R. M., & Lucas, A. M. (1991). When is an animal not an animal? When it speaks English. Journal of Biological Education. 25(3),184-186.
    von Glasersfeld, E. V. (1989). Knowing without metaphysics: Aspects of the radical constructivism. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304344.
    Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and Language. (A. Kozulin, Ed.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
    Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psychology (pp.144-188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe.
    Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (M. Cole, V.John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 21-39.
    Weber, A. L. (1995). Social Psychology(Chinese translation by Laureate Book.). Harpercollins Publishers, Inc.
    Webster, D. M> (1993). Motivated argumentation and reduction of the overattribution bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 261-271.
    Weinbrenner, L. B. (1969). Science Clasificatory Dimensions and Rules Used of Children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The university of Wisconsin.
    Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. London:Sage.
    Wilkinson, I., & Kipnis, D. (1978). Interfirm use of power. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 315-320.
    Wynne, B. (1992). Sheep farming after Chernobyl: A case study in communicating scientific information. In B. Lewenstein(Ed.), When Science Meets the Public. Washington DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
    Yerrick, R. K., Pedersen, J. E., & Arnason, J. (1998). "We're just spectators": A case study of science teaching, epistemology, and classroom. Science Education 82, 619-648.
    Zanna, M. P., Copper, J. (1974). Dissonance and the pill: An attributional approach to studying the arousal properties of dissonance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 703-709.

    QR CODE