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研究生：	黃淑真 Shu-chen Joy Huang
論文名稱：	以提昇注意力為訴求的讀前教材對提昇原文書閱讀動機的效果及學生的偏好分析 Effects of Attention-oriented Pre-reading Materials on Situational EAP Reading Motivation and Analysis of Learner Preference
指導教授：	程玉秀 Cheng, Yuh-Show 陳秋蘭 Chern, Chiou-Lan
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	英語學系 Department of English
論文出版年：	2004
畢業學年度：	93
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	190
中文關鍵詞：	英語教學、學習動機、外語閱讀、學術英語
英文關鍵詞：	TESOL, TEFL, learning motivation, second language reading, EAP (English for academic purposes)
論文種類：	學術論文
相關次數：	點閱：338 下載：71
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從文獻發現，外語閱讀的研究常偏重認知層面而輕忽情意因素，故本研究從情意因素面探討學生專業英語的閱讀。在諸多情意因素中，動機雖常被視為外語學習成就的重要指標，但外語學習動機領域仍缺乏實際教學策略的實證研究。本研究即針對此領域，以大專原文教科書為教材，以提昇閱讀動機為目標，根據 Keller的ARCS教學動機設計理論，採用其中第一要素—注意力 (attention) 以設計讀前教材，藉以探討下列問題：（一）此類教材如何影響大專生的閱讀動機，（二）學生對這類教材的偏好，以及（三）不同偏好的學生間是否存在不同的特性。
經由便利取樣，共有來自技職體系及一般綜合大學共一百八十三名商科學生參與本實驗。實驗先進行前測，共收集了五項資料：一般學業動機、學術閱讀動機、英語學習動機、英語閱讀能力、及母語的學術閱讀能力。之後學生經隨機分派至三個實驗小組之一，各組分別依不同順序（abc、bca、cab）採用三種讀前教材：(a)生字解說，(b)心理測驗，及(c)個案研究，以配合閱讀三篇摘自專業原文書長約一千八百字的文章。
生字解說代表較傳統的認知教學，心理測驗及個案研究則為本研究主要的實驗處理。根據 ARCS理論中的提昇注意力準則，心理測驗目的在給予知覺激發，個案研究則在給予探索激發；二者均取自原文書的補充教材並翻譯為中文。實驗流程係請學生先看讀前教材、之後回答測量讀前動機的簡短問卷、再讀原文、回答相同的讀後動機問卷、再回答測試理解程度的中文選擇題。完成三次閱讀及經歷三種不同的實驗處理後，再請學生指出個人所最偏好及最不喜歡的一種讀前教材，並概述原因。
研究結果發現：（一）在前測方面，來自二技的技職生比起普通教育體系的大學生語言能力較低，但學習動機卻較高。（二）在閱讀三篇中之一篇文章時，普通教育體系的學生接受心理測驗者其讀前動機優於接受個案研究者。但整體而言，在提昇動機的效果上，以動機為目標的教材（如心理測驗及個案研究）並未優於傳統認知導向的教材（如生字解說）。（三）三種教材的學生接受度在技職生間不相上下，學生提出的正反面理由各異，顯示出主觀的成分。但在一般大學的學生間，不喜歡個案研究的學生人數較少。（四）經比較各種偏好的學生在前測分數上的差異，發現在喜好方面差異雖不顯著，但不喜歡個案研究者的一般學業動機及英語閱讀能力較不喜歡心理測驗者為低。
綜合上述四點，本研究發現下列教學及研究的意涵：（一）外語教師在運用其他一般教育環境下發展出的動機理論時應更為審慎，且應將外語的能力視為影響動機的因素之一。過去的外語動機理論均不曾將學生外語程度列為解釋動機之因素，本研究建議將此因素列入理論建構的一環。（二）教師應視學生原本的動機水準而決定是否以動機策略介入教學。如 Keller所言，當學生原本動機高時，教師應避免干預，轉而將教學專注在能力的發展；當學生動機低時，教師才需設計動機策略於教學中。（三）原文書的補充教材中，常有豐富的內容，但受限於語言能力，學生常陷於艱深的文字解碼而未能受惠，未蒙其利先受其害。因此，語言教師應妥善運用這些資源，開發對學生有益的教材。（四）個案研究滿足讀者對知識的好奇，而心理測驗提昇較為淺層的注意力，後者對學習可能較無直接助益。兩種動機策略引發的閱讀動機似有不同的性質，與母語相關文獻中對興趣或好奇之性質的分類相似。此為過去外語學習的動機研究中不曾討論過的議題，值得後續研究加以探討。

Literature from the field of L2 reading has tended to focus exclusively on cognitive aspects. Situated in L2 EAP reading, this study attempted to explore motivation, an important affective factor that has been associated with L2 achievement. Among L2 motivational research, there were few empirical studies examining the effectiveness of specific motivational strategies. This study, based on Keller’s ARCS motivation model of instructional strategies, aimed to find out how attention-oriented pre-reading materials affected EFL college students’ situational motivation on EAP reading, how students perceived these motivational materials, and if student preferences were related to certain learner characteristics.
With convenience sampling, a total of 183 EFL students from two colleges in Taiwan, including one vocational college and one national university, participated in the experiment. They were given pretests on General Academic Motivation, Academic Reading Motivation, EFL Learning Motivation, EFL Reading Comprehension, and L1 Academic Reading Comprehension. Randomly assigned into three experimental groups, participants received three pre-reading treatments (a) Vocabulary List, (b) Self Appraisal, and (c) Case Study in combination with three EAP expository texts in three weekly class meetings.
Vocabulary List represented the traditional cognitive approach. Self Appraisal and Case Study were the major treatments of this study. The former was designed according to Keller’s guideline of perceptual arousal and the latter of his inquiry arousal under the attention component of ARCS model. Both treatments were adapted from authentic content textbooks and translated into participants’ L1. The procedures included having participants (1) work on the treatment materials, (2) rate a 10-item questionnaire indicating their pre-reading situational motivation, (3) read the EAP texts independently, (4) rate the same questionnaire indicating their post-reading situational motivation, and (5) answer comprehension questions in L1. At the end of the experiment, participants reported their most and least preferred treatments and provided written reasons for their preferences and dislikes.
The following results were found. First, participants from two college sites were significantly different in many aspects. Participants from the vocational college had higher trait motivation but lower language proficiency and EAP reading comprehension than those from the general educational track. Second, in the national university alone, participants who received the Self Appraisal treatment had higher pre-reading situational motivation than those who received the Case Study treatment for reading the third article. However, motivational materials did not have significant motivational effect in general. Third, on average, participants did not have specific preference over any treatment except that fewer students in the national university disliked Case Study. Fourth, the comparison among participants with different preferences indicated that those who disliked Case Study had lower General Academic Motivation and EFL Reading Comprehension than those who disliked Self Appraisal.
Implications from the results include the following. First, L2 teachers should be more cautious about applying motivational theories borrowed from non-L2 settings. Besides, they should consider the relative L2 proficiency as an important factor in L2 motivation. Since none of the existing L2 motivation theories includes learners’ proficiency level as an element influencing motivation, we suggest this to be considered in future theory construction, especially in a theory accounting for the situational characteristics of L2 motivation. Second, the decision of motivational interventions should be based on a learner motivation assessment. As Keller suggested, if learners’ original motivation level is high, teachers should focus on main instruction and not interfere with motivation; if learner motivation is low, motivational strategies will then work to bring it to an optimal level. Third, abundant resources available in authentic content textbooks may serve as a good resource for language teachers if they can carefully help learners overcome the L2 barrier. Fourth, Case Study seemed to induce a curiosity for knowledge while Self Appraisal induced a lower-level attention which may not contribute directly to learning. The difference between induced situational motivation from two types of treatment is somewhat similar to the distinction between types of interest or curiosity in L1 reading literature and has never been discussed in the L2 field. This is an area worth further exploration.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables    x

List of Figures    xii

CHAPTER ONE     INTRODUCTION    1
Background and Rationale    1
The Role of Reading in English for Academic Purposes    2
The Motivational Aspects of L2 EAP Reading    4
New Research Trend into the Affective Domain    5
Consideration of the Target Learner Population    6
Statement of the Problem    7
Purpose of the Study    8
Research Questions    9
Significance of the Study    9
Definition of Motivation and other Related Terms    11

CHAPTER TWO     LITERATURE REVIEW    13
Motivation Research    13
Second/Foreign Language Learning Motivation    14
Skehan’s Layman Hypotheses    14
The Traditional Socio-psychological Approach    15
Subsequent Studies Going Beyond the Gardner’s Framework    15
The 1994 Modern Language Journal Debate    18
More Recent Models    21
The Return to an Educational Focus    22
Empirical Studies Specific to Foreign Language Contexts    23
Motivation and Preference    25
Motivation in Education    26
Summary of Major Theories    26
Emerging Trends in Research on Learning Motivation    28
Keller’s ARCS Model and Related Concepts    28
Motivational Strategies for Attention    30
Research on Interests and Learning    33
Reading Motivation    34
L1 Reading Motivation Research    34
Interest and Reading    35
Reading Research    36
Summary of Major Theories    37
The Psycholinguistic View of Reading    37
Rosenblatt’s Transactional Model    38
Day and Bramford’s Model for Extensive Reading    40
Language Problem vs. Reading Problem    40
The Short-circuit / Threshold Hypothesis    42
The Language Threshold    42
Other Types of Threshold    43
Pedagogical Concerns on L2 Reading Instruction    44
L1 Content Area Reading Instruction    47
EAP/ESP Research    49
General EAP/ESP Concerns    49
EAP Reading    52
Vocabulary in EAP Reading    53

CHAPTER THREE     METHODS    56
Participants    56
Selection and Adaptation of Reading Materials for the Experiment    58
Research Design    60
Comparison with a Similar Empirical Study    62
Data Collection Procedures    64
First Meeting (Pretests)    64
Procedures Identical for the Second, Third, and Fourth Meetings    65
Wrap-up Preference Check in the Fourth Meeting    66
Instrumentation    66
Pretests    66
General Academic Motivation    67
Academic Reading Motivation    68
EFL Learning Motivation    69
EFL Reading Comprehension Test    70
Academic Reading Comprehension Test in L1    70
Treatments    72
Language of Treatment Materials    74
The First Treatment – Vocabulary Lists    75
The Second Treatment – Self Appraisal    75
The Third Treatment – Case Study    76
Posttests    76
Pre-reading and Post-reading Situational Motivation    77
Reading Comprehension Tests    77
Scoring of Variables    78
Pretest Variables    78
Dependent Variables    78
Data Analysis Procedures    79

CHAPTER FOUR     ANALYSES AND RESULTS    81
Descriptive Statistics and Comparison Between the Two School Sites    81
Pretest Variables    81
Dependent Variables    82
Situational Motivation    82
Comprehension    85
Comparison Between the Two School Sites    87
Analyses and Results for Site A    88
Correlation Analyses    89
Effects on Pre-reading and Post-reading Motivation    90
Pre-reading Situational Motivation    91
Post-reading Situational Motivation    93
Effects on Comprehension    94
Analyses of Preferences for Treatments and the Reasons    96
Comparison of Participant Characteristics by Their Preferences    99
Analyses and Results for Site B    100
Correlation Analyses    100
Effects on Pre-reading and Post-reading Motivation    102
Pre-reading Situational Motivation    102
Post-reading Situational Motivation    104
Effects on Comprehension    106
Analyses of Preferences for Treatments and the Reasons    107
Comparison of Participant Characteristics by Their Preferences    109
Summary of Results    111

CHAPTER FIVE     DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS    113
Overview of the Study    113
Discussion    114
Comparison Between Two School Sites    115
Effects on Situational Motivation    117
Pre-reading Situational Motivation    118
Post-reading Situational Motivation    120
Effects on Comprehension    122
Participant Preferences and the Reasons    123
Differences Among Preference Groups    125
Epistemic vs. Perceptual Curiosity    126
Seductive Interest and Reading    127
Implications for Foreign Language Pedagogy    128
Classroom Practice    128
Material Selection and Adaptation    129
Limitations and Implications for Future Research    130
On Participants    131
On the Length and Difficulty of Texts    131
On the Delivery of Treatment    132
On Research Design    133
On the Relation Between Preference and Learner Characteristics    134
On the Construction and Refinement of L2 Motivation Theories    134
Conclusion    135

REFERENCES    136

APPENDIX A    145
APPENDIX B    149
APPENDIX C    152
APPENDIX D    160
APPENDIX E    169
APPENDIX F    178
APPENDIX G    188

List of Tables

Table 1. Dornyei’s Framework of L2 Motivation    20
Table 2. Summary of the Most Well-known Contemporary Motivation Theories in Psychology    27
Table 3. The Attention Component in ARCS Model and Its Main Supporting Strategies    32
Table 4. Summary of Major Reading Theories    37
Table 5. A Comparison of Content Area Reading (CAR) Frameworks    48
Table 6. Summary of the Contents of Reading Materials and Readability Indices    59
Table 7. Participant Assignments for Articles and Treatments    61
Table 8. Time Allocated to Parts of Pretest    65
Table 9. Identical Procedures in the Three Meetings for the Reading Experiment    66
Table 10. Components of the Original Scale of Academic Motivation    68
Table 11. Readability Scales of the Four Pretest EFL Reading Passages    70
Table 12. Summary of Pretests    72
Table 13. Summary of Supplementary Materials Available in the OB Text    73
Table 14. Keller’s Attention-getting Guidelines and the Corresponding Treatments    73
Table 15. Number of Data Sets Collected by Site, Pretest, Article, and Treatment    79
Table 16. Means (SDs) of Pretest Scores    82
Table 17. Unadjusted Descriptive Statistics of All Dependent Variables    83
Table 18. Summary of t Tests Between Pre-reading and Post-reading Situational Motivation    85
Table 19. Summary of t Tests for Pretest Variables between Two School Sites    87
Table 20. Summary of t Tests for Dependent Variables Between Two Sites    88
Table 21. Correlation Coefficients, Site A    90
Table 22. ANCOVA Summary for Pre-reading Situational Motivation, Site A    91
Table 23. ANCOVA Summary for Post-reading Motivation, Site A    93
Table 24. ANCOVA Summary for Comprehension, Site A    95
Table 25. Participants’ Preference over Treatments by Experimental Group, Site A    97
Table 26. Summary of Positive and Negative Feelings toward Treatments, Site A    99
Table 27. Correlation Coefficients, Site B    101
Table 28. ANCOVA Summary for Pre-reading Situational Motivation, Site B    103
Table 29. ANCOVA Summary for Post-reading Motivation, Site B    105
Table 30. ANCOVA Summary for Comprehension, Site B    106
Table 31. Participants’ Preference over Treatments by Experimental Group, Site B    108
Table 32. Summary of Positive and Negative Feelings toward Treatments, Site B    109
Table 33. Summary of Treatment/Article/Interactive Effect on Situational
    Motivation    118
Table 34. Summary of Treatment/Article/Interactive Effect on Comprehension    122


List of Figures

Figure 1. Positioning of the study    2
Figure 2. Dornyei’s framework for motivational strategies    24
Figure 3. Model of the major variables motivating the decision to read in a second language    41
Figure 4. Situational motivation levels at the six sequential stages of experiment,
    Site A    84
Figure 5. Situational motivation levels at the six sequential stages of experiment,
    Site B    85
Figure 6. Unadjusted means of comprehension by article and treatment, Site A    86
Figure 7. Unadjusted means of comprehension by article and treatment, Site B    86
Figure 8. Means plot of pre-reading situational motivation, Site A    92
Figure 9. Means plot of post-reading situational motivation, Site A    94
Figure 10. Means plot of comprehension, Site A    96
Figure 11. Means plot of pre-reading situational motivation, Site B    104
Figure 12. Means plot of post-reading situational motivation, Site B    105
Figure 13. Means plot of comprehension, Site B    107
                                

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