摘 要
本研究以Martin等 (1999) 所提出的意象在運動心理學的應用模式及Marphy and Martin (2002) 所提出的運動意象使用的三階段模式為架構，探討高、低特質運動自信心運動員的意象使用型態、意象能力及運動員知覺的意象功能。首先翻譯修訂運動意象量表及修訂版動作意象量表並建構其信、效度，以擁有適當的研究工具；接著探討高、低特質運動自信心的運動員在意象使用型態與意象能力的差別；高、低特質自信心的運動員各自在意象使用型態的差別；最後檢驗運動員知覺的意象功能。本研究分為二階段，第一階段以四所大學共237位運動員為對象，平均年齡為21.042.91歲，其中男生140人、女生97人，建構Hall等 (1998) 所發展出的運動意象量表及Hall and Martin (1997) 所發展出的修訂版動作意象量表的信、效度；第二階段則以六所大學共395位男、女運動員為研究對象，其中男生227人、女生168人，平均年齡為20.411.92歲。填寫運動意象量表中文修訂版、修訂版動作意象量表、特質運動自信心量表、運動自信心量表。資料蒐集完成後，先以內部一致性分析及驗證性因素分析考驗運動意象量表和修訂版動作意象量表的信、效度；再以側面圖分析、累積百分比及卡方適合度考驗去進行資料分析處理，結果發現：(一)高特質運動自信心的運動員在五種意象使用型態 (特定認知意象、一般認知意象、特定動機意象、一般覺醒動機意象及一般支配動機意象)皆優於低特質運動自信心的運動員；高特質運動自信心的運動員在動覺及視覺動作意象能力優於低特質運動自信心的運動員；(二)高特質運動自信心的運動員在一般支配動機意象的使用與其它四種意象使用型態 (特定認知意象、一般認知意象、特定動機意象及一般覺醒動機意象) 並沒有差異；低特質運動自信心的運動員在一般支配動機意象的使用低於其它意象使用型態；(三)運動員知覺的意象功能與運動意象量表中的五種意象使用型態的功能有差異；即意象內容對於個別運動員的意義並不相同。

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine how high and low trait sport confidence athletes differed in their imagery content and imagery ability, and to examine athletes’ perceptions of the functions of imagery. The framework of this study was based on both Martin’s (1999) model of “Mental Imagery Use in Sport” and Marphy’s and Martin’s (2002) model of “Three Level of Imagery in Sport”. First, both the tools of sport imagery and movement imagery were revised, and then to examine these two tools of reliability and validity. Second, this study was to assess the differences between high and low trait sport confidence athletes on the imagery content and the imagery ability. Third, this study was to examine athletes’ perceptions of the functions of imagery.Two stages of data collection were executed. At the first stage, subjects were 237 student athletes (140 male and 97 female) from four universities in Taiwan in order to testify the reliability and validity of sport imagery and movement imagery. At the second stage, subjects were 395 student athletes (227 male and 168 female) from six universities around Taiwan. Data were analyzed by LISREL8.50 and SPSS 12.0. There were internal consistency analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, profile analysis, cumulative percents and chi-square test for goodness of fit . The results of this study were following: (1)The results showed high sport confident athletes had better on imagery content (motivational specific, motivational general-arousal, cognitive general, cognitive specific, and motivational general-mastery) than low sport confident athletes did. High confident athletes had better on both kinesthetic and visual imagery abilities than low confident athletes did；(2)For the high confident athletes, there were not differences among motivational general-mastery and others types of imagery content (motivational specific, motivational general-arousal, cognitive general, and cognitive specific). For the low confident athletes, there were differences among motivational general-mastery and others types of imagery content；(3)There were differences among the perception of function of imagery and five types of imagery content. That is, the content of imagery did have different individual meaning for each athlete.

參考文獻
一、中文部分

于文正 (1999)。心象練習的心理機制。國立台灣師範大學體育研究所博士論文，未出版，台北市。

王建長（1996）。心智練習對籃球罰球技能表現之效果。國立台灣師範大學體育研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。

石恆星、洪聰敏 （2002）。意象活動之神經生理機轉。中華體育，63，45-52。

李伯黍、楊爾衢、孫名之、陳澤川、袁軍、張榮華、顧海根、唐本予、李維、李茹、李正雲（譯） (2003)。心理學辭典。台北市：五南。(Reber, A. S. 1995)

林清山 (1995)。多變項分析統計法。台北市：東華。

林啟賢（1998）。視動行為複演法對學習足球踢球的影響。國立台灣師範大學體育研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。

邱玉惠 (2001)。運動員心理技能量表之編製。國立體育學院教練研究所碩士論文，未出版，桃園。

邱皓政 (2003)。結構方程模式—LISREL的理論、技術與應用。台北市：雙葉書廊。

洪聰敏 (1998)。腦波：探討運動及身體活動心理學的另一扇視窗。中華體育，44，63-74。

許晊豪（1998）。意象練習對擊劍運動員注意力、運動自信心、賽前狀態性焦慮及運動表現之影響。國立體育學院教練研究所碩士論文，未出版，桃園。

郭香雲 (2003)。團隊文化與運動員特徵對運動自信心來源的影響。台北市立體育學院運動科學研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。

莊仲仁、鄭伯壎、周文祥 (1995)。我國運動員心理競技能力探討 （一）： 初步研究。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計劃成果報告(報告編號：NSC84-2413-HOO2-005a)，未出版。

黃崇儒 (2000a)。運動員認知型態量表的驗證性因素分析。體育學報，28，223-232。

黃崇儒 (2000b)。中文版運動員心理因應技能量表的修訂。北體學報，7，1-14。

黃芳銘 (2002)。結構方程模式理論與應用。台北市：五南。

張惠如 (1994)。男女運動員與非運動員的心象能力和認知動作表現之差異。國立台灣師範大學體育研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。

張惠如 (1995)。運動心象量表之信、效度研究。台中師院學報，9，1-21。

張春興 (1989)。張氏心理學辭典。台北市：東華。

陳冠錦 (2002)。心象練習對籃球罰球技能學習的影響。國立台灣師範大學體育研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北市。

陳正昌、程炳林、陳新豐、劉子鍵 (2003)。多變量分析方法—統計軟體應用。台北市：五南。

廖主民 （1993）。探討台灣優秀運動員的認知型態--『運動員認知型態量表』的編製。體育學報，16，437-450。

二、西文部分

Abma, C. L., Fry, M. D., Li, Y., & Relyea, G. (2002). Differences in imagery content and imagery ability between high and low confident track and field athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 67-75.

Adrian, E. D., & Matthews, B. H. C. (1934). The Berger rhythm: Potential changes from the occipital lobes in mans. Brain, 57, 355-385.

Ahsen, A. (1984). ISM: The triple code model for imagery and psychophysiology. Journal of Mental Imagery, 8, 15-42.

Bakker, F. C., Boschker, M.S.J., & Chung, T. (1996). Change in muscular activity while imaging weight lifting using stimulus or response propositions. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 313-324.

Bandura, A. (Ed.). (1971). Psychological modeling: Conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-358.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

Barr, K., & Hall, C. (1992). The use of imagery by rowers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 23, 243-261.

Beauchamp, M., Bray, S., & Albinson, J. (2002). Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers. Journal of Sport Sciences, 20, 697-705.

Beauchamp, P. H., Halliwell, W. R., Fournier, J. F., & Koestmer, R. (1996). Effects of cognitive-behavioral psychological skills traning on the motivation, preparation, and putting performance of novice golfers. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 157-170.

Burhans, R. S., Richman. C. L., & Bergey, D. B. (1988). Mental imagery training: Effects on running speed performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19, 26-37.

Burton, D. (1988). Do anxious swimmers swim slower？Re-examining the elusive anxiety-performance relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10, 45-61.

Callow, N., & Hardy, L. (2001). Type of imagery associated with sport confidence in netball players of varying skill levels. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 1-17.

Callow, N., Hardy, L., & Hall, C. (1998). The effect of a motivational-mastery imagery intervention on the sport confidence of three elite badminton players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 10, S135.

Callow, N., Hardy, L., & Hall, C. (2001). The effect of a motivational general-mastery imagery intervention on the sport confidence of high level badminton players. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72, 389-400.

Carpenter, W. B. (1894). Principles of mental physiology. NewYork : Appleton.

Casby, A., & Moran, A. (1998). Exploring mental imagery in swimmers: A single ca se study design. The Irish Journal of Sport Psychology, 19, 525-531.

Caserta, R. J. (2002). Sport-confidence as related to performance in male and female tennis players. Unpublished master thesis, Springfield College, Massachusetts.

Chartrand, J. M., Jowdy, D. P., & Danish, S. J. (1992). The Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports: Psychometric characteristics and applied implications. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 405-413.

Corbin, C. B. (1981). Sex of subject, sex of opponent, and opponent ability as factors affecting self-confidence in a competitive situation. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 265-270.

Corbin, C. B., Landers, D. M., Feltz, D. L., & Senior, K. (1983). Sex difference in performance estimates: Female lack confidence vs. male boastfulness. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 54, 407-410.
Cox, R. H. (2002). Sport psychology: Concepts and applications (5th ed.). Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill.

Cumming, J. (2002). Competitive athletes’ use of imagery and the deliberate practice framework. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, Ontario, Canada.

Cumming, J., & Ste-Marie, D. M. (2001). The cognitive and motivational effects of imagery training: A matter of perspective. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 276-288.

Decety, J., & Grezes, J. (1999). Neural mechanisms sub-serving the perception of human actions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 172-178.

Denis, M. (1985). Visual imagery and the use of mental practice in the development of motor skills. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, 4S-16S.

Driskell, J. E., Cooper, C., & Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance？Journal of Applied Psychology, 10, 48-57.

Edwards, R., & Hardy, L. (1996). The interactive effects of intensity and directions of cognitive and somatic anxiety and self-confidence upon performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 296-312.

Ernest, C. H. (1977). Imagery ability and cognition: A critical review. Journal of Mental Imagery, 2, 181-216.

Eslinger, O. W. (2002). Mental imagery ability in high and low performance collegiate baseketball players.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston, USA.

Evans, L., Jones, L., & Mullen, R. (2004) An imagery intervention during the competitive season with an elite Rugby union player. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 252-271.

Farah, M. J. (1984). The neurological basis of mental imagery: A componential analysis. Cognition, 18, 245-272.

Feltz, D. L., & Landers, D. M. (1983). The effect of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal Sport Psychology﹐5﹐25-57.

Feltz, D. L. (1988). Self-confidence and sports performance. In K. B. Pandolf (Ed.), Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews (Vol. 16, pp.423-457). New York: Macmillan.

Feltz, D. L. (1994). Collective efficacy in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16 (Suppl.), 516.

Feltz, D. L., & Riessinger, C. A. (1990). Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self- efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 132-143.

Gallego, J., Denot-Ledunois, S., Varkdon,G., & Perruchet, P. (1996). Ventilatory responses to imagined exercise. Psychophysiology, 33, 711-719.

Garza, D. L., & Feltz, D. L. (1998). Effects of selected mental practice techniques on performance ratings, self-efficacy, and state anxiety of competitive figure skaters. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 1-15.

Gayton, W. F., & Nickless, C. J. (1987). An investigation of the validity of the trait and state sport-confidence inventories in predicting marathon performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 65(2), 481-482.

Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1984). On the meaning of within-factor correlated measurement errors. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 527-580.

Golla, F., Hutton, E, L., & Walter, W. G. (1943). The objective study of mental imagery: 1 Physiological concomitants. Journal of Mental Sciences, 89, 216-223.

Gordon, R. (1949). An investigation into some of the factors that favour the formation of stereotyped images. British Journal of Psychology, 40, 156-167.

Goss, S. Hall, C., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. (1986). Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movement. Memory & Cognition, 14, 469-477.
Gould, D., & Damarjian, N. (1997). Imagery training for peak performance. In J. Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.), Exploring sport and exercise psychology (pp. 25-50). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Gould, D., Weiss, M., & Weinberg, R. (1981). Psychological characteristics of successful and nonsuccessful Big Ten wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 17-29.

Gregg, M., Hall, C., & Nederhof, E. (2005). The imagery ability, imagery use, and performance relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 19, 93-99.

Griffin, N. S., & Keogh, J. F. (1982). A model for movement confidence. In J. A. S. Kelso & J. Clark (Eds.), The development of movement control and coordination (pp. 213-236). New York: Wiley.

Hall, C. R. (1985). Individual differences in the mental practice and imagery of motor skill performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, 17S-21S.

Hall, C. R. (1998). Measuring imagery abilities and imagery use. In J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 165-172). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Hall, C. R. (2001). Imagery in sport and exercise. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 529-549). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne,G. J. (1989). Search for a relationship between imagery ability and memory of movements. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 17, 89-100.

Hall, C. R., Buckolz, E., & Fishburne, G. J. (1992). Imagery and the acquisition of motor skills. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 17(1), 19-27.

Hall, C. R., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., & Hausenblas, H. A. (1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of the sport imagery questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology , 29, 73-89.

Hall, C. R., & Martin, K. A. (1997). Measuring movement imagery abilities: A revision of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. Journal of Mental Imagery, 21, 143-154.

Hall, C. R., & Pongrac, J. (1983). Movement imagery questionnaire. London, Ontario: University of Western Ontario.

Hall, C., Pongrac, J., & Buckolz, E. (1985). The measurement of imagery ability. Human Movement Science, 4, 107-118.

Hall, C. R., Rodgers, W. M., & Barr, K. A. (1990). The use of imagery by athlete in selected sports. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 1-10.

Hall, C., Schmidt, D., Durand, M., & Buckolz, E. (1994). Imagery and motor skills acquisition. In A. A. Sheikh & E. R. Korn (Eds.), Imagery in sports and physical performance (pp. 121-134). Amityville, NY: Baywood.

Harris, D.V., & Robinson, W. J. (1986). The effect of skill level on EMG activity during internal and external imagery. Journal of Sport Psychology﹐8﹐105-111.

Harter, S. (1981). A model of intrinsic mastery motivation in children: Individual differences and developmental change. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 14, pp. 215-255). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Harwood, C., Cumming, J., & Hall, C. (2003). Imagery use in elite youth sport participants: Reinforcing the applied significance of achievement goal theory. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74, 292-300.

Hatfield, B.D., & Landers, D. M. (1983). Psychophysiology: A new direction for sport psychology. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 243-259.

Hecker, J.E., & Kaczor, L. M. (1988). Application of imagery theory to sport psychology: Some preliminary findings. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 363-373.

Hird, J.S., Landers, D.M., Thomas, J.R., & Horan, J. (1991). Physical practice is superior to mental practice in enhancing cognitive and motor performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,13, 281-293.
Housner, L. (1984). The role of visual imagery in recall of modeled motoric stimuli. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6 , 148-158.

Isaac, A. (1992). Mental practice – Does it work in the field？The Sport Psychologist, 6, 192-198.

Isaac, A., Marks, D., & Russell,E. (1986). An instrument for assessing imagery of movement: The Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIO). Journal of Mental Imagery, 10, 23-30.

Jacobson, E. (1930). Electrical measurement of nuromuscular states during mental activities. American Journal of Physiology, 94, 24-34.

Jacobson, E. (1931). Electrical measurement of nuromuscular states during mental activities. American Journal of Physiology, 96, 115-121.

Jones, M. V., Mace, R. D., Bray, S. R., MacRae, A. W., & Stockbridge, C. (2002). The impact of motivational imagery on the emotional state and self-efficacy levels of novice climbers. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(1), 57-73.

Jones, L., & Stuth, G. (1997). The use of mental imagery in athletics: An overview. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 6, 101-115.

Jonse, J. G., Swain, A. B. J., & Hardy, L. (1993). Intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationship with performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11, 525-532.

Katz, A. N. (1983). What does it mean to be a high imager？ In J. C. Yuille (Ed.), Imagery, memory and cognition (pp.39-63). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kerr, G., & Goss, J. (1996). The effects of a stress management program on injuries and stress levels. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8, 109-117.

Kosslyn, S. M., Gains, G., & Thompson, W. L. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Review: Neuroscience, 2, 635-642.

Kosslyn, S. M., Pascual-Leone, A., Felician, O., Camposano, S., Keenan, J. P., Thompson, W. L. (1999). The role of area 17 in visual imagery: Convergent evidence from PET and rTMS. Science, 284, 167-170.

Lang, P. J. (1977). Imagery in therapy: An informational processing analysis of fear. Behavior Therapy﹐8﹐862-886.

Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16, 495-512.

Lang, P. L., Melamed, B. G., & Hart, J.A. (1970). A psychophysiological analysis of fear modification using an automated desensitization procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 76, 229-234.

Lee, C. (1990). Psyching up for a muscular endurance task: Effects of image content on performance and mood state. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 66-73.

MacIntyre, T., & Moran, A. (1996). Imagery use among canoeists: A worldwide survey of novice, intermediate, and elite slalomists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8, S132.

Mahoney, M. J., & Avener, M. (1977). Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 135-141.

Mahoney, M. J. (1989). Psychological predictors of elite and nonelite performance on Olympic weightlifting. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20 , 1-20.

Mahoney, M. J., Gabriel, T. J., & Perkins, T. S. (1987). Psychological skills and exceptional athletic performance. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 181-199.

Mardia, K. V. (1985). Mardia’s test multinormality. In S. Kotz & N. L. Johnson (Eds. In chief), Encylclopedia of statistical sciences, 5, 217-221. New York: Wiley.

Marks, D. F. (1973). Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. British Journal of Psychology, 64, 17-24.

Martin, K. A., & Hall, C.R. (1995). Using mental imagery to enhance intrinsic motivation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 54-69.
Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall, C.R. (1999).Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 245-268.

McDonald, R. P., Ho, M. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analysis. Psychological Methods, 7, 64-82.

Mills, K. D., Munroe, K. J., & Hall, C. R. (2000). The relationship betweem imagery and self-efficacy in competitive athletes. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 20, 33-39.

Moritz, S. E., Feltz, D. L., Fahrbach, K. R., & Mack, D. E. (2000). The relationship of self- efficacy measures to sport performance: A meta-analytic review. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71, 280-294.

Moritz, S. E., Hall, C.R., Martin, K. A., & Vadocz, E. (1996). What are confident athletes imaging？ An examination of image content. The Sport Psychologist,10,171-179.

Munroe, K. J. (1999). Imagery use by athletes: Confirmation and elaboration. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Western Ontario, Ontario,Canada.

Munroe, K. J., Hall, C. R., Simms, S., & Weinberg, R. S. (1998). Athletes’ use of imagery early and late in their competitive season. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 440-449.

Munroe, K. J., Giacobbi, P. R., Hall, C., & Weinberg, R. S. (2000). The four Ws of imagery use: Where, when, why, and what. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 119-137.

Murphy, S. M. (1990). Models of imagery in sport psychology: A review. Journal of Mental Imagery, 14, 153-172.

Murphy, S. M. (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 486-494.

Murphy, S. M., & Jowdy, D. P. (1992). Imagery and mental practices. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp. 221-250). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Murphy, S. M., & Martin, K. A. (2002). The use of imagery in sport. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 405-439). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Murphy, S. M., Woolfolk, R. L., & Budney, A. J. (1988). The effects of emotive imagery on strength performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, 334-345.

Ng, J. K., Cheung, S. Y., & Fung, L. (2001). Role of trait sport-confidence and state sport-confidence in affecting competitive track and field performances. Journal of the International Counsil for Health Physical Education Recreation Sport and Dance, 37 (3), 35-38.

Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGrew-Hill.

Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1986). Psyched. Ottawa: Coaching Association of Canada.

Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1988). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 105-130.

Orlick, T. (1990). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental training (2nd ed.), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental training (3rd ed.), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10(4), 22-28.

Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations. New York: Oxford University Press.

Paivio, A., & Harshman, R. (1983). Factor analysis of a questionnaire on imaginal and verbal habits and skills. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 37, 461-483.

Perry, H. M. (1939). The relative efficiency of actual and imaginary practice in five selected tasks. Archives of Psychology, 34, 5-75.
Perry, C., & Morris. T. (1995). Mental imagery in sport. In T. Morris, & J. Summers (Eds.), Spor tpsychology: Theory, applications and issues (pp.339-385). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Porro, C., Cettolo, V., & Diamond, M. (1996). Primary motor and sensory cortex activation during motor performance and motor imagery: A function magnetic resonance. The Journal of Neuroscience, 16 (23), 7688-7698.

Powell, G. E. (1973). Negative and positive mental practice in motor skill acquisition. Perceputal and Motor Skills, 37, 312.

Provvidenza, C. F. (2002). The impact of a self-directed imagery package on the imagery ability and imagery use of figure skaters. Unpublished master thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

Rao, S. M., Binder, J. R., Banderttini, P. A., Hammeke, T. A., Yetkin, F. Z., Jesmanowise, A., et al. (1993). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of complex human movements. Neurology, 43, 2311-2318.

Richardson, A. (1967a). Mental practice: A review and discussion(Part 1). Research Quarterly, 38, 95-107.

Richardson, A. (1967b). Mental practice: A review and discussion(Part 2). Research Quarterly, 38, 263-273.

Richardson, A. (1969). Mental imagery. New York: Springer.

Robert, N. S., Hausenblas, H. A., & Janelle, C. M. (Eds.), (2001). Handbook of sport psychology.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Rodgers, W., Hall, C., & Buckolz, E. (1991). The effect of an imagery training program on imagery ability, imagery use, and figure skating performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 116-133.

Roland, P. E., Lassen, N.A., Larsen, B., & Skinhoj, E. (1980). Supplementary motor area and other cortical areas in organization of voluntary movements in man. Journal of Neurophysiology, 43(1), 118-136.

Roland, P. E., Skinhoj, E., Lassen, N.A., & Larsen, B. (1980). Different cortical areas in man in organization of voluntary movements in extrapersonal space. Journal of Neurophysiology, 43(1), 137-150.

Rotella, R. J., Gansneder, B., Ojala, D., & Billing, J. (1980). Cognitions and coping strategies of elite skiers: An exploratory study of young development athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2, 350-354.

Rushall, B. S.(1988). Cover modeling as a procedure for altering an elite athlete’s psychological state. The Sport Psychologist, 2 , 131-140

Ryan, E.D., & Simons, J. (1981). Cognitive demand﹐imagery and frequence of mental rehearsal as factors influencing acquisition of motor skills. Journal of Sport Psychology﹐4﹐35-45﹒

Ryan, E. D., & Simons, J. (1983). What is learned in mental practice of motor skills: A test of the cognitive-motor hypothesis. Journal of Sport Psychology﹐5﹐419-426.

Sackett, R. S. (1934). The influences of symbolic rehearsal upon the retention of a maze habit. Journal of General Psychology, 13, 113-128.

Sackett, R.S. (1935). The relationship between amout of symbolic rehearsal and retention of a maze habit. Journal of General Psychology,13, 113-128.

Salmon, J., Hall, C., & Haslsm, I. (1994). The use of imagery by soccer player. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 116-133.

Seifriz, J. J., Duda, J. L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about successin basketball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14, 375-391.

Sheikh, A., & Kunzendorf, R. (1984). Imagery, physiology, and somatic illness In A. A. Sheikh (Ed.), International review of mental imager (pp.95-138). New York: Human Sciences.

Short, P. L. (1953). The objective study of mental imagery. British Journal of Psychology, 44, 38-51.
Short, S. E., Bruggeman, J. M., Engle, S, G., Marback, T, L., Wang, L, J., Willadsen, A., & Short, M. W. (2002). The Effect of imagery function and imagery direction on self-efficacy and performance on a golf-putting task. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 48-67.

Short, S. E., Monsma, E. V., & Short, M. W. (2004). Is what you see really what you get？athletes’ perceptions of imagery’s functions. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 341-349.

Smith, D., & Collins, D. (2004). Mental practice, motor performance, and the late CNV. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 412-426.

Smith, D., Holmes, P., Whitemore, L., Collins, D., & Devonport, T. (2001). The effect of theoretically-based imagery scripts on hockey penalty flick performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 408-419.

Smith, R. E., Schutz, R. W., Smoll, F. L., & Ptacek, J. T. (1995). Dvelopment and validation of a multidimensional measure of sport-specific psychological skills: The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 379-398.

SooHoo, S., Takemoto, K. Y., & McCullagh, P. (2004). A comparison of modeling and imagery on the performance of a motor skill. Journal of Sport Behavior, 27 (4), 349-366.

Stringer, H. (2000). An examination data supporting hypothesized mediational pathwats underlying the relationship between mental imagery and motor skill performance: a meta-analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada.

Suinn, R. M. (1972). Removing emotional obstacles to learning and performance by visuo-motor behavior rehearsal. Behavioral Therapy, 31, 308-310.

Suinn, R. M. (1980). Psychology and sport performance: Principles and applications. In R. M. Suinn (Ed.), Psychology in sports: Methods and application (pp.26-36). Minneapolis, MN.: Burgess.

Suinn, R. M. (1983). Imagery and sport. In A. A. Sheikh (Ed.), Imagery: Current theory, research, and application (pp. 507-534). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Suinn, R. M. (1996). Imagery rehearsal: A tool for clinical practice. Psychotherapy in Private Practice, 15, 27-31.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Needhan Hights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Tenute, A. J. (2001). Examination of the relationship between self-efficacy for mental imagery and self-reported imagery skills. Unplublished master thesis, University Michigan State, Michigan.

Vadocz, E., Hall, C. R., & Moritz, S. E. (1997). The relationship between cometitive anxiety and imagery use. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 241-253.

Vealey, R. S. (1986). Conceptualization of sport confidence and competitive orientation: Preliminary investigation and instrument development. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 221-246.

Vealey, R. S. (2001). Understanding and enhancing self-confidence in athletes. In R. Singer, H. Hausenblas, & C. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (2nd ed., pp.550-565). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Vealey, R. E., & Greenleaf, C. S. (2001). Seeing is believeing: Understanding and using imagery in sport. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology : Personal growth to peak performance (4th ed., pp.247-272). Moutain View﹐CA: Mayfield.

Vealey, R. S., Hayashi, S. W., Garner-Holman, G., & Giacobbi, P. (1998). Sources of sport-confidence: Conceptualization and instrument development. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 20, 54-80.

Vealey, R. E. & Walter, S. M. (1993). Imagery training for performance enhancement and personal development. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology :Personal growth to peak performance (2nd ed., pp.200-224). Moutain View﹐CA: Mayfield.

Watkins, B., Garcia, A. W., & Turek, E. (1994). The relation between self-efficacy and sport performance: Evidence from a sample of youth baseball players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 6, 21-31.

Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Weinberg, R., Butt, J., Knight, B., Burke, K. L., & Jackson, A. (2003). The relationship between the use and effectiveness of imagery: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 26-40.

White, S. A. (1993). The relationship between psychological skills, experience, and practice commitment among collegiate male and female skiers. The Sport Psychologist, 7 , 49-57.

White, A., & Hardy, L. (1998). An in-depth analysis of the use of imagery by high-level slalom canoeists and artistic gymnasts. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 387-403.

Williams, J. M. (2001). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Williams, J. M., Krane, V. (1992). Coping style and self-reported measures of state anxiety and self-confidence. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 4, 134-143.

Willingham, D. B. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 105, 558-584.

Wilson, R. C., Sullivan, P. J., Myers, N. D., & Feltz, D. L. (2004). Sources of sport confidence of master athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 369-384.

Woodman, T., & Hardy, L. (2003). The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport Sciences, 21, 443-457.

Woolfolk, R., Parrish, W., & Murphy, S. M. (1985). The effects of positive and negative imagery on motor skill performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 235-241.