代謝症候群是指胰島素抗性所引起的葡萄糖不耐症、腹部肥胖、高TG、低HDL與高血壓等症狀，而最終將有可能會轉變為心血管疾病，對健康造成更大的傷害。在印度、中國及拉丁美洲地區，苦瓜被用做改善糖尿病的藥物已有很長久的歷史，但苦瓜對脂質代謝影響的研究則是近幾年才開始發展。本研究以血脂異常且容易產生動脈粥狀硬化之缺乏apoE小鼠為模式，探討苦瓜改善脂質代謝情形。實驗一、18週大缺乏apoE小鼠分為6組，給予不同飼料如下：C組(n = 5)為一般chow diet、HF組(n = 10)含20% fat、BGP組(n = 10)含20% fat加5%山苦瓜凍乾粉末、EAE組(n = 10)含20% fat加1%山苦瓜乙酸乙酯萃物、CF組(n = 5)含20%fat加0.5%clofibrate、TZD組(n = 5)含20%fat加0.00123% rosiglitazone，共餵養18週後犧牲，其間於第4、9、17週時採眼窩血測量血脂變化，並於犧牲後取組織器官進行後續分析。實驗結果以單因子變異數分析及Tukey事後分析進行組間比較。結果BGP組第9及17週血液TC顯著較HF組低25及39% (p<0.05)、第17週血液TG較HF組低38% ( p<0.05)、HDL-C較HF組高55%( p<0.05)，EAE組則使血液HDL-C高於HF組39%但未達顯著差異，肝臟脂質各組間無顯著差異。實驗二、改用較年輕缺乏apoE小鼠，並重新萃取山苦瓜乙酸乙酯萃物，分為3組：HF組(n = 11)、BGP組(n = 9)、EAE組(n = 10)，飼料成分同前述，餵食8週後，BGP組TC較HF組低28%( p<0.05)、TG下降幅度顯著高於HF組( p<0.05)、血液HDL-C高於HF組25%，但未達顯著差異。血液adiponectin、leptin濃度、肝臟PPAR-α、MTP mRNA表現量，各組間無顯著差異。本研究結果顯示，山苦瓜凍乾粉末對apo E剔除小鼠具有改善血脂功效，可研發為降血脂保健食品。

The apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE-/-) mice are hyperlipidemic and a good model to study atherosclerosis. In order to know the effects of wild bitter gourd on lipid metabolism, we conducted two experiments in apoE-/- mice. In experiment 1, 18-wk-old apoE-/- mice were assigned to 6 groups and fed different diets as follows: the high fat (20%, w/w) diet (HF, n = 10), HF with 5%wild bitter ground powder (BGP, n = 10), HF with 1% ethyl acetate extract of bitter gourd (EAE, n = 10), HF with 0.5% clofibrate (CF, n = 5), HF with 0.00123% rosiglitazone (TZD, n = 5) and chow diet (C, n = 5). Serum total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) concentrations were measured at the end of wk 4, 9 and 17. After 18 wk of feeding, the mice were sacrified. Liver and blood samples were obtained to determine hepatic TC, TG and serum HDL-C concentrations. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance and the Tukey post hoc. The BGP group had a lower level of serum total cholesterol in week 9 and 17 (25 & 39% reduction, respectively, p<0.05), a lower level of serum triglyceride in week 17 (38% reduction, p<0.05) and a higher level of HDL-C in wk 18 (55% increase, p<0.05) than the HF group. The EAE group had a 39% higher level of HDL-C than the HF group in week 18, but it was not statistically significant. Levels of hepatic TC and TG were not significantly different among all groups. In experiment 2, young (6-10 wk-old) apoE-/- mice were assigned to 3 groups and fed the HF diet (n = 11), the BGP diet (n = 9) and the EAE diet (n = 10), respectively, for 8 wk. After feeding trials, the BGP group had a lower level of serum total cholesterol (28% reduction, p<0.05), and a larger decrease in level of serum triglyceride in wk 8 (p<0.05) than the HF group. The BGP group also had a 25% higher level of HDL-C than HF group, but it was not statistically significant. There were no significant difference in serum adiponectin, serum leptin, liver PPAR-αmRNA expression and liver MTP mRNA expression among HF、BGP and EAE groups. In conclusion, this study shows that wild bitter gourd powder can be a potent blood lipid-lowering health food.

中國生草藥研究發展中心. (1981). 采色生草藥圖譜第四輯. 台北: 啟業書局.
全中和. (2005). 花蓮區農技報導─苦瓜新品種『花蓮一號』(福寶) (Vol. 63). 花蓮: 行政院農業委員會花蓮區農業改良場.
李幸祥. (1999). 台灣藥草事典(二). 台北: 旺文社股份有限公司.
明.李時珍. (1994). 重訂本草綱目. 台北市: 文化圖書公司.
林弼玉. (1994). 以巨噬細胞株為模式探討苦瓜中影響前列腺素E2合成之區分物. 國立台灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系, 碩士論文
邱年永, & 張光雄. (1995). 原色台灣藥用植物圖鑑2 (1 ed.). 台北: 南天書局.
莊佳穎. (2004). 山苦瓜活化過氧化體增殖劑活化受器 PPARs 之成分分離與鑑定. 國立台灣大學, 碩士論文
趙哲毅. (2003). 苦瓜活化過氧化體增殖劑活化受器及改變脂質代謝相關基因之表現. 國立臺灣大學, 博士論文
謝婉郁. (2005). 山苦瓜改善血糖血脂代謝異常之效應探討. 國立台灣大學, 碩士論文
A. Raman, & Lau., C. (1996). Anti-diabetic properties and phytochemistry momordica charantia l. (cucurbitaceae). Phytomedicine, 2, 349-362.
Ahmed, I., Adeghate, E., Cummings, E., Sharma, A. K., & Singh, J. (2004). Beneficial effects and mechanism of action of momordica charantia juice in the treatment of streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus in rat. Mol Cell Biochem, 261(1-2), 63-70.
Ahmed, I., Lakhani, M. S., Gillett, M., John, A., & Raza, H. (2001). Hypotriglyceridemic and hypocholesterolemic effects of anti-diabetic momordica charantia (karela) fruit extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 51(3), 155-161.
Alexander, C. A., Hamilton, R. L., & Havel, R. J. (1976). Subcellular localization of B apoprotein of plasma lipoproteins in rat liver. J. Cell Biol., 69(2), 241-263.
Arita, Y., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N., Maeda, K., Kuriyama, H., Okamoto, Y. (2002). Adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin acts as a platelet-derived growth factor-BB-binding protein and regulates growth factor-induced common postreceptor signal in vascular smooth muscle cell. Circulation, 105(24), 2893-2898.
Basch, E., Gabardi, S., & Ulbricht, C. (2003). Bitter melon (momordica charantia): A review of efficacy and safety. Am J Health Syst Pharm, 60(4), 356-359.
Bentzon, J. F., Skovenborg, E., Hansen, C., Moller, J., de Gaulejac, N. S.-C., Proch, J. (2001). Red wine does not reduce mature atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Circulation, 103(12), 1681-1687.
Betteridge, D. J., Illingworth, D. R., & Shepherd, J. (1999). Lipoproteins in health and disease. London: Arnold.
Bruun, J. M., Lihn, A. S., Verdich, C., Pedersen, S. B., Toubro, S., Astrup, A. (2003). Regulation of adiponectin by adipose tissue-derived cytokines: In vivo and in vitro investigations in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 285(3), E527-533.
Calleja, L., Paris, M. A., Paul, A., Vilella, E., Joven, J., Jimenez, A. (1999). Low-cholesterol and high-fat diets reduce atherosclerotic lesion development in apoE-knockout mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 19(10), 2368-2375.
Caro, J. F., Sinha, M. K., Kolaczynski, J. W., Zhang, P. L., & Considine, R. V. (1996). Leptin: The tale of an obesity gene. Diabetes, 45(11), 1455-1462.
Chan, L. L. Y., Chen, Q., Go, A. G. G., Lam, E. K. Y., & Li, E. T. S. (2005). Reduced adiposity in bitter melon (momordica charantia)-fed rats is associated with increased lipid oxidative enzyme activities and uncoupling protein expression. J. Nutr., 135(11), 2517-2523.
Chandler, C. E., Wilder, D. E., Pettini, J. L., Savoy, Y. E., Petras, S. F., Chang, G. (2003). Cp-346086: An MTP inhibitor that lowers plasma cholesterol and triglycerides in experimental animals and in humans. J. Lipid Res., 44(10), 1887-1901.
Chandran, M., Phillips, S. A., Ciaraldi, T., & Henry, R. R. (2003). Adiponectin: More than just another fat cell hormone? Diabetes Care, 26(8), 2442-2450.
Chao, C. Y., & Huang, C. J. (2003). Bitter gourd (momordica charantia) extract activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and upregulates the expression of the acyl CoA oxidase gene in H4IIEC3 hepatoma cells. J Biomed Sci, 10(6 Pt 2), 782-791.
Chaturvedi, P., George, S., Milinganyo, M., & Tripathi, Y. B. (2004). Effect of momordica charantia on lipid profile and oral glucose tolerance in diabetic rats. Phytother Res, 18(11), 954-956.
Chen, Q., Chan, L. L., & Li, E. T. (2003). Bitter melon (momordica charantia) reduces adiposity, lowers serum insulin and normalizes glucose tolerance in rats fed a high fat diet. J Nutr, 133(4), 1088-1093.
Chen, Q., & Li, E. T. (2005). Reduced adiposity in bitter melon (momordica charantia) fed rats is associated with lower tissue triglyceride and higher plasma catecholamines. Br J Nutr, 93(5), 747-754.
Considine, R. V., Sinha, M. K., Heiman, M. L., Kriauciunas, A., Stephens, T. W., Nyce, M. R (1996). Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans. N Engl J Med, 334(5), 292-295.
Crawford, S. E., & Borensztajn, J. (1999). Plasma clearance and liver uptake of chylomicron remnants generated by hepatic lipase lipolysis: Evidence for a lactoferrin-sensitive and apolipoprotein E-independent pathway. J. Lipid Res., 40(5), 797-805.
Curtiss, L. K., & Boisvert, W. A. (2000). Apolipoprotein e and atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol, 11(3), 243-251.
Davidson, N. O., Powell, L. M., Wallis, S. C., & Scott, J. (1988). Thyroid hormone modulates the introduction of a stop codon in rat liver apolipoprotein B messenger RNA. J. Biol. Chem., 263(27), 13482-13485.
de Roos, B., Rucklidge, G., Reid, M., Ross, K., Duncan, G., Navarro, M. A. (2005). Divergent mechanisms of cis9, trans11- and trans10, cis12-conjugated linoleic acid affecting insulin resistance and inflammation in apolipoprotein E knockout mice: A proteomics approach. FASEB J., 19(12),1746-8
Declercq, V., Yeganeh, B., Moshtaghi-Kashani, G. R., Khademi, H., Bahadori, B., & Moghadasian, M. H. (2005). Paradoxical effects of fenofibrate and nicotinic acid in apo E-deficient mice. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, 46(1), 18-24.
Delerive, P., Gervois, P., Fruchart, J.-C., & Staels, B. (2000). Induction of ikappa balpha expression as a mechanism contributing to the anti-inflammatory activities of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha activators. J. Biol. Chem., 275(47), 36703-36707.
Desvergne, B., & Wahli, W. (1999). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: Nuclear control of metabolism. Endocr Rev, 20(5), 649-688.
Duez, H., Chao, Y.-S., Hernandez, M., Torpier, G., Poulain, P., Mundt, S. (2002). Reduction of atherosclerosis by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist fenofibrate in mice. J. Biol. Chem., 277(50), 48051-48057.
Dutta PK, C. A., Chowdhury US et al. (1981). Vicine, a favism-inducing toxin from momordica charantia linn. seeds. Indian J Chem., 20B, 669-671.
Escher, P., & Wahli, W. (2000). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: Insight into multiple cellular functions. Mutat Res, 448(2), 121-138.
Francis, G. A., Annicotte, J.-S., & Auwerx, J. (2003). PPAR-{alpha} effects on the heart and other vascular tissues. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 285(1), H1-9.
Fu, T., Kashireddy, P.,& Borensztajn, J. (2003).The peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist ciprofibrate severely aggravates hypercholesterolaemia and accelerates the development of atherosclerosis in mice lacking apolipoprotein E. Biochem J, 373(Pt 3), 941-947.
Grover, J. K., & Yadav, S. P. (2004). Pharmacological actions and potential uses of momordica charantia: A review. J Ethnopharmacol, 93(1), 123-132.
Guo, Z., Mitchell-Raymundo, F., Yang, H., Ikeno, Y., Nelson, J., Diaz, V., (2002). Dietary restriction reduces atherosclerosis and oxidative stress in the aorta of apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 123(8), 1121.
Hamilton, B. S., Paglia, D., Kwan, A. Y., & Deitel, M. (1995). Increased obese mRNA expression in omental fat cells from massively obese humans. Nature Medicine, 1(9), 953-956.
Hayek, T., Oiknine, J., Brook, J. G., & Aviram, M. (1994). Increased plasma and lipoprotein lipid peroxidation in apo E-deficient mice. Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications, 201(3), 1567-1574.
Hui, D. Y., Innerarity, T. L., & Mahley, R. W. (1981). Lipoprotein binding to canine hepatic membranes. Metabolically distinct apo-E and apo-B,E receptors. J. Biol. Chem., 256(11), 5646-5655.
Ide, T., Takahashi, Y., Kushiro, M., Tachibana, M., & Matsushima, Y. (2004). Effect of n-3 fatty acids on serum lipid levels and hepatic fatty acid metabolism in BALB/c.KOR-ApoEshl mice deficient in apolipoprotein E expression. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 15(3), 169-178.
Iwaki, M., Matsuda, M., Maeda, N., Funahashi, T., Matsuzawa, Y., Makishima, M.,(2003). Induction of adiponectin, a fat-derived antidiabetic and antiatherogenic factor, by nuclear receptors. Diabetes, 52(7), 1655-1663.
Jamil, H., Gordon, D. A., Eustice, D. C., Brooks, C. M., Dickson, J. K., Jr., Chen, Y., (1996). An inhibitor of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibits apob secretion from HepG2 cells. PNAS, 93(21), 11991-11995.
Jayasooriya, A. P., Sakono, M., Yukizaki, C., Kawano, M., Yamamoto, K., & Fukuda, N. (2000). Effects of momordica charantia powder on serum glucose levels and various lipid parameters in rats fed with cholesterol-free and cholesterol-enriched diets. J Ethnopharmacol, 72(1-2), 331-336.
Jenkins, D. J., Jenkins, A. L., Wolever, T. M., Vuksan, V., Rao, A. V., Thompson, L. U., et al. (1995). Effect of reduced rate of carbohydrate absorption on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Eur J Clin Nutr, 49 Suppl 3, S68-73.
Kaplan, M., Hayek, T., Raz, A., Coleman, R., Dornfeld, L., Vaya, J., (2001). Pomegranate juice supplementation to atherosclerotic mice reduces macrophage lipid peroxidation, cellular cholesterol accumulation and development of atherosclerosis. J. Nutr., 131(8), 2082-2089.
Kirk, E. A., Heinecke, J. W., & LeBoeuf, R. C. (2001). Iron overload diminishes atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice. J. Clin. Invest., 107(12), 1545-1553.
Koba, K., Akahoshi, A., Yamasaki, M., Tanaka, K., Yamada, K., Iwata, T (2002). Dietary conjugated linolenic acid in relation to CLA differently modifies body fat mass and serum and liver lipid levels in rats.[erratum appears in lipids 2002 jun;37(6):631]. Lipids, 37(4), 343-350.
Lee, T.-S., Shiao, M.-S., Pan, C.-C., & Chau, L.-Y. (1999). Iron-deficient diet reduces atherosclerotic lesions in apoE-deficient mice. Circulation, 99(9), 1222-1229.
Maeda, N., Takahashi, M., Funahashi, T., Kihara, S., Nishizawa, H., Kishida, K., et al. (2001). PPAR{gamma} ligands increase expression and plasma concentrations of adiponectin, an adipose-derived protein. Diabetes, 50(9), 2094-2099.
Mahley, R. W., Huang, Y., & Rall, S. C., Jr. (1999). Pathogenesis of type III hyperlipoproteinemia (dysbetalipoproteinemia): Questions, quandaries, and paradoxes. J. Lipid Res., 40(11), 1933-1949.
Mahley, R. W., Innerarity, T. L., Rall, S. C., Jr., & Weisgraber, K. H. (1984). Plasma lipoproteins: Apolipoprotein structure and function. J. Lipid Res., 25(12), 1277-1294.
Mahley, R. W., & Ji, Z.-S. (1999). Remnant lipoprotein metabolism: Key pathways involving cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and apolipoprotein E. J. Lipid Res., 40(1), 1-16.
Mardones, P., Pilon, A., Bouly, M., Duran, D., Nishimoto, T., Arai, H., (2003). Fibrates down-regulate hepatic scavenger receptor class B type 1 protein expression in mice. J. Biol. Chem., 278(10), 7884-7890.
Meir, K. S., & Leitersdorf, E. (2004). Atherosclerosis in the apolipoprotein E-deficient mouse: A decade of progress. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 24(6), 1006-1014.
Moghadasian, M. H., McManus, B. M., Nguyen, L. B., Shefer, S., Nadji, M., Godin, D. V. (2001). Pathophysiology of apolipoprotein E deficiency in mice: Relevance to apo E-related disorders in humans. FASEB J., 15(14), 2623-2630.
Mohamed-Ali, V., Goodrick, S., Rawesh, A., Katz, D. R., Miles, J. M., Yudkin, J. S.. (1997). Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-{alpha}, in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 82(12), 4196-4200.
Moya-Camarena, S. Y., Heuvel, J. P. V., Blanchard, S. G., Leesnitzer, L. A., & Belury, M. A. (1999). Conjugated linoleic acid is a potent naturally occurring ligand and activator of PPAR{alpha}. J. Lipid Res., 40(8), 1426-1433.
Nakashima, Y., Plump, A. S., Raines, E. W., Breslow, J. L., & Ross, R. (1994). ApoE-deficient mice develop lesions of all phases of atherosclerosis throughout the arterial tree. Arteriosclerosis & Thrombosis, 14(1), 133-140.
Nerurkar, P. V., Pearson, L., Efird, J. T., Adeli, K., Theriault, A. G., & Nerurkar, V. R. (2005). Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein gene expression and apoB secretion are inhibited by bitter melon in HepG2 cells. J Nutr, 135(4), 702-706.
Ng, T. B., Li, W. W., & Yeung, H. W. (1989). Effects of lectins with various carbohydrate binding specificities on lipid metabolism in isolated rat and hamster adipocytes. Int J Biochem, 21(2), 149-155.
Ng, T. B., Wong, C. M., Li, W. W., & Yeung, H. W. (1986). A steryl glycoside fraction from momordica charantia seeds with an inhibitory action on lipid metabolism in vitro. Biochem Cell Biol, 64(8), 766-771.
Ng, T. B., Wong, C. M., Li, W. W., & Yeung, H. W. (1987a). Acid-ethanol extractable compounds from fruits and seeds of the bitter gourd momordica charantia: Effects on lipid metabolism in isolated rat adipocytes. Am J Chin Med, 15(1-2), 31-42.
Ng, T. B., Wong, C. M., Li, W. W., & Yeung, H. W. (1987b). Peptides with antilipolytic and lipogenic activities from seeds of the bitter gourd momordica charantia (family cucurbitaceae). Gen Pharmacol, 18(3), 275-281.
Noguchi, R., Yasui, Y., Suzuki, R., Hosokawa, M., Fukunaga, K., & Miyashita, K. (2001). Dietary effects of bitter gourd oil on blood and liver lipids of rats. Arch Biochem Biophys, 396(2), 207-212.
Nong, Z., Gonzalez-Navarro, H., Amar, M., Freeman, L., Knapper, C., Neufeld, E. B. (2003). Hepatic lipase expression in macrophages contributes to atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient and lcat-transgenic mice. J. Clin. Invest., 112(3), 367-378.
Nudel, U., Zakut, R., Shani, M., Neuman, S., Levy, Z., & Yaffe, D. (1983). The nucleotide sequence of the rat cytoplasmic {beta}-actin gene. Nucl. Acids Res., 11(6), 1759-1771.
Okamoto, Y., Kihara, S., Ouchi, N., Nishida, M., Arita, Y., Kumada, M (2002). Adiponectin reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Circulation, 106(22), 2767-2770.
Ouchi, N., Kihara, S., Arita, Y., Maeda, K., Kuriyama, H., Okamoto, Y. (1999). Novel modulator for endothelial adhesion molecules: Adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin. Circulation, 100(25), 2473-2476.
Patsouris, D., Reddy, J. K., Muller, M., & Kersten, S. (2006). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor {alpha} mediates the effects of high-fat diet on hepatic gene expression. Endocrinology, 147(3), 1508-1516.
Platel, K., Shurpalekar, K. S., & Srinivasan, K. (1993). Influence of bitter gourd (momordica charantia) on growth and blood constituents in albino rats. Nahrung, 37(2), 156-160.
Plump, A. S., & Breslow, J. L. (1995). Apolipoprotein E and the apolipoprotein E-deficient mouse. Annual Review of Nutrition, 15(1), 495-518.
Plump, A. S., Smith, J. D., Hayek, T., Aalto-Setala, K., Walsh, A., Verstuyft, J. G. (1992). Severe hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice created by homologous recombination in ES cells. Cell, 71(2), 343.
Pratico, D., Tangirala, R. K., Rader, D. J., Rokach, J., & FitzGerald, G. A. (1998). Vitamin E suppresses isoprostane generation in vivo and reduces atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice. Nat Med, 4(10), 1189.
Raabe, M., Veniant, M. M., Sullivan, M. A., Zlot, C. H., Bjorkegren, J., Nielsen, L. B. (1999). Analysis of the role of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein in the liver of tissue-specific knockout mice. J. Clin. Invest., 103(9), 1287-1298.
Rall, S. C., Jr., Weisgraber, K. H., & Mahley, R. W. (1982). Human apolipoprotein E. The complete amino acid sequence. J. Biol. Chem., 257(8), 4171-4178.
Ravn, H. B., Korsholm, T. L., & Falk, E. (2001). Oral magnesium supplementation induces favorable antiatherogenic changes in apoE-deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 21(5), 858-862.
Sato, R., Miyamoto, W., Inoue, J., Terada, T., Imanaka, T., & Maeda, M. (1999). Sterol regulatory element-binding protein negatively regulates microsomal triglyceride transfer protein gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem., 274(35), 24714-24720.
Scartezzini, P., & Speroni, E. (2000). Review on some plants of indian traditional medicine with antioxidant activity. J Ethnopharmacol, 71(1-2), 23-43.
Senanayake, G. V., Maruyama, M., Shibuya, K., Sakono, M., Fukuda, N., Morishita, T. (2004). The effects of bitter melon (momordica charantia) on serum and liver triglyceride levels in rats. J Ethnopharmacol, 91(2-3), 257-262.
Shelness, G. S., & Sellers, J. A. (2001). Very-low-density lipoprotein assembly and secretion. Curr Opin Lipidol, 12(2), 151-157.
Shore, V. G., & Shore, B. (1973). Heterogeneity of human plasma very low density lipoproteins. Separation of species differing in protein components. Biochemistry, 12(3), 502-507.
Stocker, R., & O'Halloran, R. A. (2004). Dealcoholized red wine decreases atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E gene-deficient mice independently of inhibition of lipid peroxidation in the artery wall. Am J Clin Nutr, 79(1), 123-130.
Tall, A. R. (1993). Plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein. J. Lipid Res., 34(8), 1255-1274.
Tennyson, G. E., Sabatos, C. A., Higuchi, K., Meglin, N., & Brewer, H. B. (1989). Expression of apolipoprotein B mRNAs encoding higher- and lower-molecular weight isoproteins in rat liver and intestine. PNAS, 86(2), 500-504.
Tritos, N. A., & Mantzoros, C. S. (1997). Leptin: Its role in obesity and beyond. Diabetologia, 40(12), 1371-1379.
Ueshima, K., Akihisa-Umeno, H., Nagayoshi, A., Takakura, S., Matsuo, M., & Mutoh, S. (2005). Implitapide, a microsomal triglyceride transfer protein inhibitor, reduces progression of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout mice fed a western-type diet: Involvement of the inhibition of postprandial triglyceride elevation. Biol Pharm Bull, 28(2), 247-252.
Utermann, G., Langenbeck, U., Beisiegel, U., & Weber, W. (1980). Genetics of the apolipoprotein E system in man. Am J Hum Genet, 32(3), 339-347.
Virdi, J., Sivakami, S., Shahani, S., Suthar, A. C., Banavalikar, M. M., & Biyani, M. K. (2003). Antihyperglycemic effects of three extracts from momordica charantia. J Ethnopharmacol, 88(1), 107-111.
Waddington, E., Puddey, I. B., & Croft, K. D. (2004). Red wine polyphenolic compounds inhibit atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice independently of effects on lipid peroxidation. Am J Clin Nutr, 79(1), 54-61.
Wang, H. H., Hung, T. M., Wei, J., & Chiang, A. N. (2004). Fish oil increases antioxidant enzyme activities in macrophages and reduces atherosclerotic lesions in apoE-knockout mice. Cardiovascular Research, 61(1), 169-176.
Wetterau, J. R., Aggerbeck, L. P., Bouma, M. E., Eisenberg, C., Munck, A., Hermier, M. (1992). Absence of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein in individuals with abetalipoproteinemia. 258 (5084),999-1001
Weyer, C., Funahashi, T., Tanaka, S., Hotta, K., Matsuzawa, Y., Pratley, R. E (2001). Hypoadiponectinemia in obesity and type 2 diabetes: Close association with insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 86(5), 1930-1935.
Xia, M., Ling, W. H., Ma, J., Kitts, D. D., & Zawistowski, J. (2003). Supplementation of diets with the black rice pigment fraction attenuates atherosclerotic plaque formation in apolipoprotein E deficient mice. J. Nutr., 133(3), 744-751.
Yadav, U. C., Moorthy, K., & Baquer, N. Z. (2005). Combined treatment of sodium orthovanadate and momordica charantia fruit extract prevents alterations in lipid profile and lipogenic enzymes in alloxan diabetic rats. Mol Cell Biochem, 268(1-2), 111-120.
Yamauchi, T., Kamon, J., Minokoshi, Y., Ito, Y., Waki, H., Uchida, S. (2002). Adiponectin stimulates glucose utilization and fatty-acid oxidation by activating amp-activated protein kinase. Nature Medicine, 8(11), 1288-1295.
Zhang, S. H., Reddick, R. L., Piedrahita, J. A., & Maeda, N. (1992). Spontaneous hypercholesterolemia and arterial lesions in mice lacking apolipoprotein E. Science, 258(5081), 468-471.
Zhang, Y., Proenca, R., Maffei, M., Barone, M., Leopold, L., & Friedman, J. M. (1994). Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature, 372(6505), 425-432.
Zheng, Z. X., Teng, J. Y., Liu, J. Y., Qiu, J. H., Ouyang, H., & Xue, C. (2005). [the hypoglycemic effects of crude polysaccharides extract from momordica charantia in mice]. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu, 34(3), 361-363.
Zhou, J., Moller, J., Danielsen, C. C., Bentzon, J., Ravn, H. B., Austin, R. C. (2001). Dietary supplementation with methionine and homocysteine promotes early atherosclerosis but not plaque rupture in apoE-deficient mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 21(9), 1470-1476.
Zuckerman, S. H., Kauffman, R. F., & Evans, G. F. (2002). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha,gamma coagonist ly465608 inhibits macrophage activation and atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Lipids, 37(5), 487-494.